Social Aspects Of Science Research Articles

How to assess the impact of an electronic document? And what does impact mean anyway?

PurposeUsually the impact of research and researchers is quantified by using citation data: either by journal‐centered citation data as in the case of the journal impact factor (JIF) or by author‐centered citation data as in the case of the Hirsch‐ or h‐index. This paper aims to discuss a range of impact measures, especially usage‐based metrics, and to report the results of two surveys.Design/methodology/approachThe first part of the article analyzes both citation‐based and usage‐based metrics. The second part is based on the findings of the surveys: one in the form of a brainstorming session with information professionals and scientists at the OAI6 conference in Geneva, the second in the form of expert interviews, mainly with scientists.FindingsThe results of the surveys indicate an interest in the social aspects of science, like visualizations of social graphs both for persons and their publications. Furthermore, usage data are considered an appropriate measure to describe quality and coverage of scientific documents; admittedly, the consistence of usage information among repositories has to be kept in mind. The scientists who took part in the survey also asked for community services, assuming these might help to identify relevant scientific information more easily. Some of the other topics of interest were personalization or easy submission procedures.Originality/valueThis paper delineates current discussions about citation‐based and usage‐based metrics. Based on the results of the surveys, it depicts which functionalities could enhance repositories, what features are required by scientists and information professionals, and whether usage‐based services are considered valuable. These results also outline some elements of future repository research.

How to assess the impact of an electronic document? And what does impact mean anyway?: Reliable usage statistics in heterogeneous repository communities

Purpose – Usually the impact of research and researchers is quantified by using citation data: either by journal‐centered citation data as in the case of the journal impact factor (JIF) or by author‐centered citation data as in the case of the Hirsch‐ or h‐index. This paper aims to discuss a range of impact measures, especially usage‐based metrics, and to report the results of two surveys. Design/methodology/approach – The first part of the article analyzes both citation‐based and usage‐based metrics. The second part is based on the findings of the surveys: one in the form of a brainstorming session with information professionals and scientists at the OAI6 conference in Geneva, the second in the form of expert interviews, mainly with scientists. Findings – The results of the surveys indicate an interest in the social aspects of science, like visualizations of social graphs both for persons and their publications. Furthermore, usage data are considered an appropriate measure to describe quality and coverage of scientific documents; admittedly, the consistence of usage information among repositories has to be kept in mind. The scientists who took part in the survey also asked for community services, assuming these might help to identify relevant scientific information more easily. Some of the other topics of interest were personalization or easy submission procedures. Originality/value – This paper delineates current discussions about citation‐based and usage‐based metrics. Based on the results of the surveys, it depicts which functionalities could enhance repositories, what features are required by scientists and information professionals, and whether usage‐based services are considered valuable. These results also outline some elements of future repository research.

The rise and relevance of qualitative research

The article discusses the development of social research in advanced economies and relates the rise of qualitative research to social changes. The paper suggests that partly, qualitative research emerged because some of the articles formerly classified as ‘non‐empirical’ or ‘theoretical’ gave way to an increasing share of articles classified as qualitative. In addition, the rise of qualitative inquiry meant that the everyday reality which produces statistical relationships between the variables of quantitative analysis is given more attention. Since the rise of qualitative research has primarily taken place at the expense of non‐empirical or theoretical rather than quantitative articles, one can argue that it has contributed to an overall systematization of social research. Overall, qualitative inquiry simply carries on one aspect of social science, the mission to study ‘the social body,’ the practices that make up social institutions and produce the regularities reflected in statistical relations.

A Descriptive Study on Sexually Exploited Children in Residential Treatment

Sexual exploitation and prostitution of children and adolescents is a multibillion dollar industry in the United States (Estes and Weiner in Medical, legal & social science aspects of child sexual exploitation: A comprehensive review of pornography, prostitution, and internet crimes, vol I, G.W. Medical Publishing, Inc, St Louis, 2005; Milloy in Essence 33(5):429–436, 2002). It is estimated that 293,000 youth are at-risk of being commercially sexual exploited (Estes and Weiner in The commercial sexual exploitation of children in the U. S., Canada and Mexico, The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 2001). Courtrooms in major cities around the country are reporting an increase of juveniles who are prostituted and of the individuals who prostitute them. Issues such as negative family dynamics, poor parenting skills, lower intellectual functioning, poor school success, inadequate social skills, and abuse and neglect are risk factors associated with juvenile prostitutes. This descriptive study focused on a unique group home treatment program in a large southern city for adolescent females with a history of juvenile prostitution. The authors found that the participants had low IQ scores and multiple mental health disorders. Implications for intervention and treatment are discussed.

Making Darwin: Biography and the Changing Representations of Charles Darwin

Biographies of scientists are generating fresh interest as current movements in the historiography of science increasingly focus on the social aspects of science and on the criteria that most accurately describe a scientific life. Biography is the form through which the work of a scientist can be located in its fullest historical context. It can also reveal much about the construction of reputation and about the reception of ideas. The biographical tradition surrounding the naturalist Charles Darwin from 1882 to the present day has employed a variegated imagery, exemplifying how writings about scientific figures have adjusted to changing cultural and scientific norms.

On the Light Doves and Learning on Mistakes

Each type of learning is proposed as being a three-stage process, composed of: (i) recognition of a perceptual situation and performance of an action corresponding thereto; (ii) observation of a deviation of the action result from an expected outcome; (iii) re-arrangement of the conceptual framework of reasoning to meaningfully assimilate the observed deviation. In order to evaluate a general, systemic significance of the concept of learning proposed hereby, the latter is assessed from perspectives that correspond to diverse levels of organizational complexity of Nature. Thermodynamic concepts, constructivist and autopoietic frameworks of analysis of cognitive phenomena, and the aspects of social sciences are intertwined so as to support the all-encompassing meaning of the general pathways of learning proposed herein. Numerous ethical consequences, with a particular emphasis on educational approaches, are derived from accepting such a general nature of learning and development. Naturally implied dialectical form of evolution, according to which prosperous and favorable features of human creativity arise solely from problem-solving situations, is further discussed.

“So, what is an embryo?” A comparative study of the views of those asked to donate embryos for hESC research in the UK and Switzerland

The moral status of the human embryo has gained much attention in debates over the acceptability, or otherwise, of human embryonic stem cell research. Far less attention has been paid to the suppliers of those embryos: people who have undergone IVF treatment to produce embryos to assist them to have a baby. It is sociologically and ethically important to understand their views and experiences of being asked to donate embryos for research if we are to fully understand the wider social and regulatory aspects of hESC science. This paper reports on parallel studies investigating these issues in the UK and in Switzerland. The studies reveal the inextricable entangling of the social and moral status of embryos. Since donors participate in different discursive domains and contexts (public, clinic, family) that shape their perception of “what” an embryo is, their views of embryos embody conflicting ideas and ambivalences.

Preface: Soils & Society 2006 Conference—A short report and an introduction to special issue

The soil resource affects all aspects of New Zealand life, and is recognised as a living substrate that supports growth and filters waste. The resource needs to be protected and nourished so that it will continue to look after us long into the future. The NewZealand Society of Soil Science (NZSSS) organised a conference with the conference theme “Soils & Society”. This encompassed the economic, environmental, social, and cultural aspects of soil science. Rotorua was chosen as the conference venue and is an ideal location due to the growing local emphasis on water quality stemming from soil management issues. The water quality of Rotorua Lakes has become one of the important national environmental issues in New Zealand. Local and central government agencies are looking for solutions to this problem. It was expected that conference delegates from a wide range of soil-related disciplines in New Zealand – including universities, research institutes, Government departments, analytical services, the fertiliser industry and regional councils, as well as representatives from agricultural, horticultural and forestry businesses – would look at water quality issues from different angles (soil management, waste management, farm nutrients, policy issues, etc.). In addition, the conference provided a forum for discussion of a wide range of current soil research topics. The conference was held in Rydges Hotel, Rotorua, from 27 to 30 November 2006. This is the first time ever that the New Zealand Society of Soil Science had organised the conference in a hotel, and to some extent, it helped to raise the profile of our Society. The conference organising committee was formed in mid 2005, to plan, organise and execute a memorable conference. The conference managers, Innovatek Ltd, played a key role in the running of the conference.

Editorial: Building on a Firm Foundation

On 2 January 2008, I began serving as editor-in-chief of Environmental Health Perspectives (EHP). In doing so, I follow in the footsteps of the many editors who came before me—James Burkhart, Thomas Goehl, George Lucier, and Gary Hook. Since the start of the journal in 1972, these individuals have guided the development of EHP to be one of the world’s premier environmental health science publications. In 2007, EHP published 12 issues containing more than 300 peer-reviewed research articles (i.e., commentaries, reviews, mini-monographs, meeting and workshop reports, environmental medicine, children’s health), as well as numerous editorials and letters. Each issue also contained a news section, which included articles on emerging research themes; investigative articles on a wide range of national and international topics; analytical articles on legal, regulatory, public policy, and social aspects of environmental health science; and articles describing new discoveries or approaches in research, remediation, monitoring, and public health policy. EHP also supports numerous outreach activities, including the publication of a Chinese-language edition and a student edition. The cumulative result of the hard work of the previous editors of EHP is reflected in an impact factor of 5.86, which is the highest for journals publishing in the area of environmental sciences. Clearly, the challenge for the next editor-in-chief is to build on the successes of the previous editors. In the future, the journal must be ready to address emerging areas in environmental health science and adapt to changes in how science is communicated to a diverse audience. In plotting a course for the evolution of EHP, there are several principles that are critical for its ultimate success: independence, transparency, balance, and recognition of emerging themes. Two of the most important of these are independence and transparency. Although it is true that EHP receives generous support from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), it is necessary that the content, scope, and direction of the journal not be influenced by NIEHS leadership. As the EHP editor-in-chief, I must have the full responsibility for directing and managing all aspects of the publication. The journal must also operate in an open and transparent manner. Guidelines for submission and publication of papers and news articles must be clear and followed consistently. Papers meeting conditions for review—relevance to human health, adequate sample sizes, novelty of information, impact on the field—must be evaluated by fair and impartial associate editors and reviewers. Reasons for rejection or acceptance of articles must be clearly articulated to the authors. A balance of differing opinions offers the journal credibility and depth. This should be reflected in the makeup of the associate and editorial review boards and in the content of the science and news articles. It is also important that the journal publish news and research about emerging themes in environmental health science. Over the last several years, EHP has published many excellent epidemiologic studies on air pollution, metals, and persistent bio-accumulative toxicants. The journal will continue to provide a forum wfor this type of research. EHP is also in a position to attract papers involving multidisciplinary or integrated approaches to complex environmental issues, including cumulative risk, community risk, systems biological approaches to hazard identification, exposure science, source-to-effect modeling, and approaches to evaluate the effectiveness of regulatory decisions. EHP also has a long history of publishing toxicologic studies. Looking forward, multidisciplinary research papers elucidating modes of action or critical steps in biologic pathways that result in toxicity would be consistent with this tradition. Another emerging trend in environmental health science is the reevaluation of the default process to evaluate human health risk after exposure to environmental agents. Approaches involving analysis of uncertainty in risk assessment and the application of alternative risk assessment models need to be aired in a public forum. Also important to the success of the journal will be its emphasis on outreach to developing countries and to young people interested in a career in environmental health science. Finally, it is clear that EHP’s continued success will depend on the innovative application of the Internet to facilitate communication of science news and results to diverse audiences. I believe that adhering to the principles of independence, transparency, balance, and recognition of emerging themes—in conjunction with a timely and efficient review process—will lead to a wider audience for the journal and an enhanced impact on the field. I look forward to working with the talented and committed staff at EHP to ensure the reality of this vision.

Promoting Discourse about Socioscientific Issues through Scaffolded Inquiry

This case study investigated the implementation of an inquiry‐based curricular unit that was designed to promote student discourse and debate on aspects related to the nature of science, using a socioscientific issue of genetically modified foods. Two high school science classrooms participated in the study that took place over seven consecutive 1.5‐h period blocks. The researchers utilized qualitative procedures to analyze students’ views on the nature of science as expressed through their answers to online and interview questions, and to examine features of argumentation and discourse in the final classroom debate. The students’ answers to questions related to the nature of science reflected conceptions of the tentative, creative, subjective, and social aspects of science. Yet aspects of the nature of science did not enter into the debate discussions. Instead students utilized more factual‐based content of the evidence that ultimately led into numerous instances of fallacious reasoning and personal attacks. These findings suggest that perhaps a socioscientific issues approach to exploring aspects of the nature of science should be designed so that students are moved beyond developing their nature of science conceptions to applying those conceptions within a decision‐making context.

Social Science Research Needs for the Hurricane Forecast and Warning System: An Introduction

Social Science Research Needs for the Hurricane Forecast and Warning System: An Introduction

Malaria in pregnancy: what can the social sciences contribute?

Building on existing knowledge from social science work on malaria, the authors propose two models for studying social science aspects of malaria in pregnancy.

The search for the hematopoietic stem cell: social interaction and epistemic success in immunology

Epistemology of science is currently polarized. Descriptive accounts of the social aspects of science coexist uneasily with normative accounts of scientific knowledge. This tension leads students of science to privilege one of these important aspects over the other. I use an episode of recent immunology research to develop an integrative account of scientific inquiry that resolves the tension between sociality and epistemic success. The search for the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) by members of Irving Weissman’s laboratory at Stanford University Medical Center exhibits both the goal-oriented character of contemporary immunology and the importance of social interactions in successful achievement of those goals. This episode includes three kinds of epistemic success: characterization of HSC, formation of new interdisciplinary interfaces, and reconciliation of apparently incompatible models. All three depend on coordinating the work of diverse participants via social interactions. Together, they reveal the crucial role of social interactions within and between research groups in producing epistemic success. These features of the search for the HSC generalize to immunology as a whole, and plausibly to other disciplines. This account thus resolves the polarizing tension in epistemology of science, and complements individualistic accounts of scientific knowledge and rationality.

Reviewing the definition of “elderly”

Conventionally, “elderly” has been defined as a chronological age of 65 years old or older, while those from 65 through 74 years old are referred to as “early elderly” and those over 75 years old as “late elderly.” However, the evidence on which this definition is based is unknown. We have attempted to review the definition of elderly by analyzing data from long‐term longitudinal epidemiological studies, and clinical and pathological studies that have been accumulated at the Tokyo Metropolitan Geriatric Hospital and the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology. Our recommendation might be a starting point in developing a strategy for a successful society by reviewing the definition of elderly based on comprehensive evidence in all aspects of social, cultural and medical sciences.

Implications of a multi-disciplinary educational and research environment: Perspectives of future business, law, science, and engineering professionals in the technological innovation: Generating economic results (TI:GER®) program

Functioning well in a global, technology-driven, multi-disciplinary environment necessitates a more robust educational paradigm, especially in science and engineering. For a scientific education to be complete, it can no longer be restricted solely to technical areas. Similarly, law and business students will encounter a slew of technologies throughout the course of their careers. They will be required to comprehend the intricacies and corresponding implications of these technologies in order to impart their perspectives effectively and have an impact. In an effort to address this widely recognized need, a number of multi-disciplinary education and innovation programs have recently surfaced. Although several of these have been documented in the literature, the experiences of participants and the manner in which these will influence their future career plans as well as personal goals are not usually taken into account. Our focus in this paper is to shed light on this ‘end effect’ of being exposed to a multi-disciplinary education by stressing the importance of understanding social, economic, and legal aspects of science and engineering within the context of a scientific graduate-level education. Specifically, the authors take a closer look at the TI:GER®1(Technological Innovation: Generating Economic Results) program. Based on their experiences, the authors present their learning and insight on multi-disciplinary education in a mixed technical and professional degree setting.

技術者倫理教育の可能性

This paper discusses the possibilities of teaching engineering ethics in universities. This is based on the teaching experience of a newly developed course that has been introduced to the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering at the University of Fukui, since April 2004. Entitled “ethics for engineers”, the course targeted senior-level students and makes use of a newly written textbook that emphasizes social aspects of science and technology. To encourage students to think and form their own opinions with regards to their role as engineers in a modern technological society, the book is complemented by other materials such as videos, newspaper articles and some other relevant books. Students are also encouraged to write reports that reflect their own opinion on subjects such as what kind of engineers they intend to be, or what do ethics mean to them? The paper will conclude by giving a course evaluation including students' response, highlighting valuable experiences and stating the importance of further developing this topic in engineering education.

John Michael Ziman

John Michael Ziman

Social Aspects of Science; Religion

Social Aspects of Science; Religion

Teaching introductory graduate research methods

This paper describes a graduate research methods course taught at a business school. The course serves as an introduction to most of the commonly used research methods and methodologies, be they quantitative, qualitative or critical. All of the main research paradigms are covered (functionalist, interpretive and critical/postmodern) at the introductory level. Students studying any aspect of social science find value in the course. Students complete the course with an appreciation of how to develop a literature review, determine a gap in the literature and formulate research questions, specify methods for addressing this gap, and design a study using the identified method(s). This approach differs from the usual (North American) approach to teaching research methods, which in business schools traditionally focuses mainly on positivistic, statistical methods. It further addresses calls in the literature for pluralism and cross-paradigmatic approaches to research.

The trouble with social science

Some of the most celebrated theories of nationalism exemplify the self‐confirming, evidence‐averse, deterministic, and ideological aspects of social science as we know it. What has gone wrong? The social sciences have modeled themselves on physics, failing to grasp the essential difference between the contingent, historical development of cultural particularity and the universal, law‐like regularities of inanimate matter. The physicist's tools for conducting the method Popper called “conjecture and refutation” are largely inappropriate when dealing with imaginative and therefore unpredictable human beings. Obsessive quantification and the assumption of universal “social” laws, in particular, need to be de‐emphasized in favor of a Weberian willingness to make conjectures about the causes of unique events, and to test those hypotheses by comparing them to apparently similar cases.