Asian Steppe Research Articles

Genetic and morphological differences among relict marginal occurrences of Stenobothrus eurasius (Orthoptera)

Steppes form large zonal habitats in Asia but only consist of localised outposts in Europe. An ideal subject for the study of differences within species between the main steppe zone and the localized more western outposts is the Orthopteran Stenobothrus eurasius, widespread across the Siberian and Central Asian steppes but present only in isolated relic populations at the western edge of its area. We used genetic and morphological analyses to detect possible differences among these relic populations. We carried out a study on morphological parameters of wings in parallel with the comparison of four DNA fragments (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, 12S rRNA and the mtDNA control region, cytochrome B, nuclear internal transcribed spacers plus the 5.8S rRNA region) involving 15 extrazonal populations of the species. St. nigromaculatus was used as an outgroup taxon in the genetic analyses. Variability of the morphological characters of St. eurasius individuals was higher within the regions than amongst the regions. The two Stenobothrus species were not separated based on the CR gene. Samples of both Stenobothrus species were separated on the COI, cytB and ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 phylogenetic trees with high support (PP = 1) in Bayesian analyses but clear genetic lineages were not revealed, and populations of the focal species were not grouped according to their geographic locations. The similarity of this species in different steppe outposts supports the hypothesis that St. eurasius was widespread in the more extensive steppe areas that were once present, but the extension of agricultural landuse reduced the steppe habitats resulting in the current patchy distribution of St. eurasius limited to the remaining habitats.

Predicting the potential risk of Caragana shrub encroachment in the Eurasian steppe under anthropogenic climate change

Climate change and human activities drive widespread shrub encroachment in global grassland ecosystems, particularly in the Eurasian steppe. Caragana shrubs, the primary contributors to shrub encroachment in this region, play a crucial role in shaping the ecosystem's structure and function. Future changes in the suitable distribution range of Caragana species will directly affect the ecological security and sustainable socio-economic development of the Eurasian steppe ecosystem. We used an ensemble modeling approach to predict Caragana shrub-dominated plant communities' current and future distribution in three major steppe subregions: the Black Sea-Kazakhstan steppe, the Tibetan Plateau steppe, and the Central Asian steppe. We assessed the potential risk of Caragana shrub encroachment by predicting changes in the suitable distribution area of 19 Caragana shrub species under future climate changes. Our research findings suggest that the expansion of Caragana species in different subregions of the Eurasian steppe is influenced by the effects of climate change in various ways. The distribution of Caragana species is primarily influenced by precipitation and temperature, and the global human modification (ghm) has a significant impact on the Central Asian and Tibetan Plateau subregions. Minimal changes are expected in the Black Sea-Kazakhstan subregion, a slight increase on the Tibetan Plateau, and a substantial rise in the Central Asian subregion, which suggests a higher potential risk of Caragana species shrub encroachment in that area. Our research provides valuable insights into the response of Caragana shrub encroachment to changing climates and human activities. It also has implications for the sustainable management of different areas of the vast Eurasian steppe ecosystem.

Changes in Competitors, Stress Tolerators, and Ruderals (CSR) Ecological Strategies after the Introduction of Shrubs and Trees in Disturbed Semiarid Steppe Grasslands in Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia.

To reveal the changes in the life history characteristics of grassland plants due to vegetation restoration, plant species and communities were analyzed for their competitor, stress tolerator, and ruderal (CSR) ecological strategies after the introduction of woody plants in the damaged steppe grassland and were compared with those in reference sites in Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia. As a result, it was found that the introduction of the woody plants (Corethrodeneron fruticosum, Caragana microphylla, Populus canadensis, and Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica) into the damaged land greatly increased the plant species diversity and CSR eco-functional diversity as the succession progressed. The plant strategies of the temperate typical steppe (TTS) and woodland steppe (WS) in this Asian steppe are CSR and S/SR, respectively, which means that the plants are adapted to disturbances or stress. As the restoration time elapsed in the damaged lands exhibiting (R/CR) (Corispermum hyssopifolium), the ecological strategies were predicted to change in two ways: (1) →R/CSR (Cynanchum thesioides, Astragalus laxmannii, etc.) → CSR in places (TSS) (Galium verum var. asiaticum, Saussurea japonica, etc.) where only shrubs were introduced, and (2) → S/SR (Allium mongolicum, Ulmus pumila, etc.) → S/SR in sites (WS) (Ulmus pumila, Thalictrum squarrosum, etc.) where trees and shrubs were planted simultaneously. The results mean that the driving force that causes succession in the restoration of temperate grasslands is determined by the life-form (trees/shrubs) of the introduced woody plants. This means that for the restoration of these grasslands to be successful, it is necessary to introduce woody tree species at an early stage.

Question of agent of camel balantidiosis solved: Molecular identity, taxonomic solution and epidemiological considerations

Domestic camels (Camelus bactrianus, the Bactrian camel; and Camelus dromedarius, the dromedary) are pseudo-ruminant herbivores kept as livestock in rural, inhospitable regions (cold deserts and dry steppes of Asia, arid to semi-arid regions of Africa, western and central Asia). Their close contact with humans makes them a potential reservoir for zoonotic parasite infections, as has been suggested for human balantidiasis. However, there is confusion about the ciliate species that infects camels: Infundibulorium cameli was originally described in dromedaries, but this name has almost never been used and most authors identified their findings as Balantioides coli and, to a lesser extent, Buxtonella sulcata, a cattle ciliate. To clarify the taxonomic status of the parasite and the corresponding zoonotic significance for camels, we performed morphological characterization of cysts and genetic analysis (SSU-rDNA and ITS markers) of B. coli-like isolates from Bactrian camels from Bulgaria and from dromedaries from Spain and the United Arab Emirates. Our results indicate that the camel ciliate is not B. coli, nor is it B. sulcata, but is a different species that should be placed in the same genus as the latter. Thus, camels are not a reservoir for human balantidiasis. Although the correct genus name would be Infundibulorium according to the principle of priority, this would lead to confusion since this name has almost fallen into disuse since its initial description, but Buxtonella is almost universally used by researchers and veterinarians for the cattle ciliate. We therefore propose to apply the reversal of precedence and use Buxtonella as the valid genus name. Consequently, we propose Buxtonella cameli n.comb. as the name for the camel ciliate.

Russian-Asian trade caravans of the 18th–19th centuries: features of organization and everyday life on the road

The study covers transport issues of economic relations between Russia and Asian states in the 18th19th centuries. The paper attempts to systematize the accumulated information about the mechanism of the trade caravan as an important element of the everyday work of merchants engaged in international trade in the period under study. The article describes the key tasks of entrepreneurs in organizing a caravan. Being the main customers of the caravan services, the merchants tried to take into account all the nuances of preparing goods for shipment, from the selection of management and working personnel to the purchase of fastening gear. Emphasis is placed on the elements of everyday life of the caravan personnel, such as the rules for placing cargo on pack animals and caring for them, the gastronomic arsenal of caravaners, recreation conditions, replenishment of water and provisions during the movement. The article describes the principles of selection of caravan masters, their functions and powers. In the course of the study, a number of differences between Russian and Asian caravans were discovered, which existed mainly in the status of caravan masters, the way the owners of the goods travelled and how meals were organized. The source base of the study, formed by unpublished archival materials, narratives of merchants and travelers who traveled in the 18th19th centuries on pack animals across the Asian steppes and deserts and participated in the everyday camp life, made it possible to recreate the microenvironment of the caravan travel as a unique logistical phenomenon.

Prehistoric population expansion in Central Asia promoted by the Altai Holocene Climatic Optimum

How climate change in the middle to late Holocene has influenced the early human migrations in Central Asian Steppe remains poorly understood. To address this issue, we reconstructed a multiproxy-based Holocene climate history from the sediments of Kanas Lake and neighboring Tiewaike Lake in the southern Altai Mountains. The results show an exceptionally warm climate during ~6.5–3.6 kyr is indicated by the silicon isotope composition of diatom silica (δ30Sidiatom) and the biogenic silica (BSi) content. During 4.7-4.3 kyr, a peak in δ30Sidiatom reflects enhanced lake thermal stratification and periodic nutrient limitation as indicated by concomitant decreasing BSi content. Our geochemical results indicate a significantly warm and wet climate in the Altai Mountain region during 6.5–3.6 kyr, corresponding to the Altai Holocene Climatic Optimum (AHCO), which is critical for promoting prehistoric human population expansion and intensified cultural exchanges across the Central Asian steppe during the Bronze Age.

Horse domestication as a multi-centered, multi-stage process: Botai and the role of specialized Eneolithic horse pastoralism in the development of human-equine relationships

For over a decade there has been general, but not universal, consensus that the earliest known evidence for horse husbandry was at Eneolithic Botai, Kazakhstan, circa 3,500 BCE. Recent ancient genomic analyses, however, indicate that Botai is not the source of modern domestic horse stock (DOM2 lineage), but is instead related to the Przewalski clade of horses. DOM2 appears to instead to have emerged in early Bronze Age (mid 3rd Mill. BCE) in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and spread quickly replacing other horse lineages after approximately 2,000 BCE. Whilst the specific evidence for earlier husbandry at Botai is not diminished by this evidence, it has broken the consensus regarding the early stages of horse domestication, with some now viewing it as a later event. This paper argues that domestication is rarely an event, but instead a process that is ongoing. The case is made for a “prey pathway” initial phase of domestication in multiple localities during the Eneolithic, which was based around local subsistence pastoralist niche construction. This took different forms due to the presence or absence of ruminant domestic stock in the Eastern European or Central Asian steppes, respectively. Whilst “push” factors likely played a part in the development of horse specialist pastoralism at Botai, it is suggested that “pull” factors accelerated the spread of DOM2 lineages, replacing others, in the later Bronze Age. The DOM2 spread was principally driven, not by local subsistence needs, but wider social, economic and military desirability of equestrianism. The long-term process of horse domestication continues in modernity with major breed changes caused first by the post-medieval agricultural revolution and, more currently, the desire for sporting achievement.

The evolutionary history of the Central Asian steppe-desert taxon Nitraria (Nitrariaceae) as revealed by integration of fossil pollen morphology and molecular data

Abstract The transition from a greenhouse to an icehouse world at the Eocene-Oligocene Transition (EOT) coincided with a large decrease of pollen from the steppe-adapted genus Nitraria. This genus, now common along the Mediterranean coast, Asia and Australia, has a proposed coastal origin and a geographically widespread fossil record. Here we investigated the evolution, taxonomic diversity and morphological disparity of Nitraria throughout the Cenozoic by integrating extant taxa and fossil palynological morphotypes into a unified phylogenetic framework based on both DNA sequences and pollen morphological data. We present the oldest fossil pollen grain of Nitraria, at least 53 Myr old. This fossil was found in Central Asian deposits, providing new evidence for its origin in this area. We found that the EOT is an evolutionary bottleneck for Nitraria, coinciding with retreat of the proto-Paratethys Sea, a major global cooling event and a turnover in Central Asian steppe vegetation. We infer the crown age of modern Nitraria spp. to be significantly younger (Miocene) than previously estimated (Palaeocene). The diversity trajectory of Nitraria inferred from extant-only taxa differs markedly from one that also considers extinct taxa. Our study demonstrates it is therefore critical to apply an integrative approach to fully understand the plant evolutionary history of Nitrariaceae.

Synonymisation of Myotis aurascens with M. davidii (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) is Premature

Based on morphological and molecular data Benda et al. (2012) suggested that East European and West and East Asian steppe whiskered bat, Myotis aurascens Kusjakin, 1935, is conspecifi c to M. davidii (Peters, 1869) described from China. Th is hypothesis found considerable support and eventually it may even turn out to be true, but at present it still needs more testing. It is only clear so far that the steppe whiskered bats from the western Eurasia and steppe whiskered bats from southern China are different, phylogenetically quite distant species. Th e study of variation and between-group differences of the steppe whiskered bats in morphological characters and molecular markers throughout the species geographic range is needed, and especially the comparison of their molecular genetic traits with those of M. davidii from the type locality (Beijing). Until such an analysis is done, taxonomic statements on the synonymy of the names M. aurascens and M. davidii are premature.

Floristic Composition and Biological Spectrum of The Bogdkhan Mountain, Mongolia

The Bogdkhan mountain of Mongolia is strictly protected and possesses a unique ecosystem, because of its location in the transitional zone of Siberian taiga and the Asian steppe. Floristic composition and the biological spectrum of the Bogdkhan Mountain were studied during July 2019 to September 2020. A total of 522 vascular plants were recorded belonging to 249 genera and 63 families. Asteraceae was found to be the most dominant family (13.22%; 33 genera and 69 taxa) followed by Poaceae (8.43%; 21 genera and 44). The classified life-form spectra of all the species recorded from the study area revealed the predominance of hemicryptophytes (63.03%) followed by geophytes (11.30%), therophytes (10.34%), phanerophytes (9.58%), chamaephytes (5.36%), and hydrophytes (0.38%). The notable changes found in the biological spectrum, which are chamaephytes from 12 to 5.36%, geophytes from 8 to 11.30% and therophytes from 8 to 10.34%. Variaty of reasons might cause change the life form, such as climate change, anthropogenic impacts, etc. Hemicryptophytes and chamaephytes dominate the flora of the mountain due to the cold mountain niche. The floristic diversity of this mountain tends to decline further videnced from the observed lesser divergence values of geophytes and therophytes. Bangladesh J. Plant Taxon. 29(2): 241-268, 2022 (December)

The polymorphism and tradition of funerary practices of medieval Turks in light of new findings from Tuva Republic.

The medieval Turks of the eastern Asian steppe are known for funerary finds exalting horsemanship and military heroism that thrived on intertribal warfare. Existing bodies of research on various categories of objects-which include architecture, stelae, grave goods and inhumations-are in depth but highly regionalized. As a result, our understanding of the archaeological culture of the Turks on a spatio-temporal scale commensurate with territorial shifts in their political dominion throughout the period of the Turk khaganates (mid-6th to mid-8th centuries CE) remains disjunct. The present paper addresses this problem of disparate data. We present a synthesis of the archaeological research of medieval Turks spanning Mongolia, southern Siberia, and Xinjiang in view of results of the excavation of medieval burials at Tunnug 1 in Tuva Republic-where Turkic remains are dispersed and not easily distinguishable from other funerary cultures of connecting time periods. We argue that Turkic funerary culture can be better characterized as polymorphic-the presence of different regional amalgams of burial traditions. The horse-and-human burials and commemorative ogradka known to be quintessentially Turkic are but one of the more dominant amalgams. This pattern of differential practices is congruent with the history of medieval Turks evolving as peoples of mixed lineages and political groupings, rather than people of a unitary culture.

Dracocephalum ruyschiana (Lamiaceae): first record for Spain

Dracocephalum ruyschiana L. is an Eurasian continental species with a fragmented distribution extending from the boreal regions to the Asian steppes and European mountains. In the Pyrenees it is only known from three locations in France, but two of them have not been rediscovered in modern times, and there are no citations in Spain or Andorra. In summer 2021 a population was found in the Val d’Aran (Catalan Pyrenees, Spain). A complete description is presented, and an identification key is included as an amendment for their taxonomic treatment in Flora iberica. Its current Pyrenean distribution, habitat and phenology are also reported. The conservation status is evaluated under the IUCN regional and national levels.

Influence of grazing and solar panel installation on tenebrionid beetles (Coleoptera Tenebrionidae) of a central Asian steppe

Grazing may represent a major threat to biodiversity in arid grasslands. The increasing use of grasslands for solar parks may represent a new important threat. No study has investigated the effects of solar parks on soil insects. Tenebrionids are a major component of the arthropod fauna of grasslands of central Asia. These ecosystems are threatened by grazing and increasing land use for solar parks. Aim of this work was to investigate the effects of grazing and solar panels on tenebrionids in arid grasslands (desert steppe) in China by comparing their community structure in ungrazed, heavily grazed, and solar park sites. Beetles were sampled by pitfall traps, and sites were compared for abundance and diversity (Hill numbers). All sites were characterized by simple, strongly dominated tenebrionid communities. Species proportions varied among sites. Grazing negatively influenced overall abundance, but did not alter species proportions; by contrast, solar panels had no effect on the average abundance, but reduced the proportion of the most abundant species. Compared with the other two sites, the solar park was characterized by a higher plant biomass and lower temperatures. A major availability of resources and less harsh conditions in the solar park might have a role in reducing the dominance of the most abundant species, allowing other species to attain higher abundances. This led to a more balanced community structure, with higher values of diversity. Although neither grazing nor solar panel installation modified radically tenebrionid species-abundance distribution or diversity, grazing and solar panel installation had different effects in species abundances and their impact might amplify the effect of other disturbance factors such as the ongoing climate change.

Genetic diversity of the endangered Mongolian saiga antelopeSaiga tatarica mongolica (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) provides insights into conservation

AbstractThe Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) is one of the few megafauna species from the mammoth steppe still living today. Currently, saiga are classified as critically endangered, persisting only in small areas of Central Asian steppe and desert ecosystems. The species is divided into two subspecies: Saiga tatarica mongolica and Saiga tatarica tatarica. In this study, we have for the first time characterized the genetic diversity of the Mongolian saiga (S. t. mongolica) using both mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers. We also analysed S. t. tatarica specimens in order to genetically compare both subspecies. The mitochondrial control region was sequenced for a total of 89 individuals: 20 skin, 53 umbilical cord, three placentae and a muscle sample from S. t. mongolica, and a total of 12 hair samples from S. t. tatarica. Additionally, 19 microsatellites developed for saiga antelope were also screened. Our results revealed that the Mongolian saiga presents very low genetic diversity at the mitochondrial level, with no shared mitochondrial haplotype between the two subspecies. Low genetic diversity is also present at the autosomal level, with most loci having low heterozygosity (Ho/He) and a low number of alleles per locus. Despite the low genetic diversity, we found no separation between the subpopulations in Mongolia, indicating that conservation corridors are actually promoting contact between different herds. Our results validate current conservation efforts and inform the implementation of new measures to increase the viability of the S. t. mongolica subspecies.

Forest vegetation structure of the Bogd Khan Mountain: A strictly protected area in Mongolia

Bogd Khan Mountain is a strictly protected area located in the Khentei mountain range. It lies in the transitional zone of the Siberian coniferous taiga and the Asian steppe and has a unique ecosystem. The present study was conducted with the objective of identifying the plant community type, forest structure, and the changes in forest stands of the Bogd Khan Mountain. Sampling was done at 155 plots randomly along the gradients of the entire forest. Differences in species composition, biological spectrum, species diversity, and importance value were analyzed in each community. This study revealed the occurrence of six plant community types comparing of Larix sibirica, Picea obovata , Pinus sibirica , Betula pendula subsp. mandshurica , Pinus sylvestris and Populus tremula . These communities were different in species richness, diversity, and their distribution correlated to the altitudinal gradient (score 0.71735; p value 0.001). An upsurge in Picea obovata, and Betula pendula subsp. mandshurica community was found, indicating changes in the ecosystem such as permafrost melting, caused by anthropogenic influences. We suggest preserving the main dominant tree species in the native communities and reduction of the anthropogenic impacts urgently for the effective management of the biodiversity of the Bogd Khan Mountain.

Central Mongolian lake sediments reveal new insights on climate change and equestrian empires in the Eastern Steppes

The repeated expansion of East Asian steppe cultures was a key driver of Eurasian history, forging new social, economic, and biological links across the continent. Climate has been suggested as important driver of these poorly understood cultural expansions, but paleoclimate records from the Mongolian Plateau often suffer from poor age control or ambiguous proxy interpretation. Here, we use a combination of geochemical analyses and comprehensive radiocarbon dating to establish the first robust and detailed record of paleohydrological conditions for Lake Telmen, Mongolia, covering the past ~ 4000 years. Our record shows that humid conditions coincided with solar minima, and hydrological modeling confirms the high sensitivity of the lake to paleoclimate changes. Careful comparisons with archaeological and historical records suggest that in the vast semi-arid grasslands of eastern Eurasia, solar minima led to reduced temperatures, less evaporation, and high biomass production, expanding the power base for pastoral economies and horse cavalry. Our findings suggest a crucial link between temperature dynamics in the Eastern Steppe and key social developments, such as the emergence of pastoral empires, and fuel concerns that global warming enhances water scarcity in the semi-arid regions of interior Eurasia.

From Mulan (1998) to Mulan (2020): Disney Conventions, Cross-Cultural Feminist Intervention, and a Compromised Progress

Directed by the feminist filmmaker Niki Caro, Disney’s 2020 live-action remake of Mulan (1998) strove to be a more gender progressive, culturally appropriate, and internationally successful adaptation of the Chinese legend of Mulan than the animated original. Contrary to the film’s intended effect, however, it was a critical and financial letdown. The film was criticized for a wide range of issues, including making unpopular changes to the animated original, misrepresenting Chinese culture and history, perpetuating Orientalist stereotypes, and demonizing Inner Asian steppe nomads. In addition, the film also faced boycott calls amid political controversies surrounding China. It received exceptionally low audience ratings in both the US and China, grossing a total well under its estimated budget. This article argues that Mulan (2020) is not, as many believe, just another Disney film suffering from simple artistic inability, cultural insensitivity, or political injustice, but a window into the tension-ridden intersectionality of the gender, sexual, racial, cultural, and political issues that shape the production and reception of today’s cross-cultural films. It discusses three major problems, the Disney problem, the gender problem, and the cultural problem, that Mulan (2020) tackled with respectful efforts in Caro’s feminist filmmaking pattern. The film made significant compromises between its goals of cultural appropriateness, progressive feminism, and monetary success. Although it eventually failed to satisfactorily resolve these at times conflicting missions, it still achieved important progress in addressing some serious gender and cultural problems in Mulan’s contemporary intertextual metamorphosis, especially those introduced by the Disney animation. By revealing Mulan (2020)’s value and defects, this article intends to flesh out some real-world challenges that feminist movements must overcome to effectively transmit messages and bring about changes at the transcultural level in the arts.

How to Adapt Mongolian Yurt to the Modern Requirements and European Climate—Airtightness versus CO2 Concentration?

There are currently trends in the world to transfer and adapt traditional solutions to contemporary needs. This applies, inter alia, to mobile shelters used by nomadic peoples. The article is devoted to the research on the quality of internal air in the yurt and the possibilities of its adaptation to high contemporary quality and environmental requirements, while maintaining its characteristic sustainable values. The tested traditional Mongolian yurt was moved from the dry and cold climate of the Asian steppe to the temperate climate of Central Europe and has been significantly modified. The outer shell materials have been changed, replacing natural materials with modern tight insulating foils. The wood-fired stove has been replaced with an electric heater and the roof opening has been firmly closed. All of these modifications resulted in far-reaching changes in the quality of the internal environment in the yurt. The conducted measurements and simulations of CO2 concentration in the modified yurt proved that the efficiency of ventilation system is not sufficient and that the air quality is very poor (even for a single user). In the case of a larger number of users, the concentration of CO2 has already reached a level that was dangerous to health. The simplest method of improving the air quality in the yurt is its careful unsealing to the required level. Striving for a low energy demand, however, would require a completely different approach (for example, in the form of forced ventilation with a heat recovery unit, ultimately powered with a PV array). Such a solution is very different from the traditional yurt model but is close to modern expectations and environmental requirements.

Bacillus anthracis Phylogeography: New Clues From Kazakhstan, Central Asia

This article describes Bacillus anthracis strains isolated in Kazakhstan since the 1950s until year 2016 from sixty-one independent events associated with anthrax in humans and animals. One hundred and fifty-four strains were first genotyped by Multiple Locus VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) Analysis (MLVA) using 31 VNTR loci. Thirty-five MLVA31 genotypes were resolved, 28 belong to the A1/TEA group, five to A3/Sterne-Ames group, one to A4/Vollum and one to the B clade. This is the first report of the presence of the B-clade in Kazakhstan. The MLVA31 results and epidemiological data were combined to select a subset of seventy-nine representative strains for draft whole genome sequencing (WGS). Strains from Kazakhstan significantly enrich the known phylogeny of the Ames group polytomy, including the description of a new branch closest to the Texas, United States A.Br.Ames sublineage stricto sensu. Three among the seven currently defined branches in the TEA polytomy are present in Kazakhstan, “Tsiankovskii”, “Heroin”, and “Sanitary Technical Institute (STI)”. In particular, strains from the STI lineage are largely predominant in Kazakhstan and introduce numerous deep branching STI sublineages, demonstrating a high geographic correspondence between “STI” and Kazakhstan, Central Asia. This observation is a strong indication that the TEA polytomy emerged after the last political unification of Asian steppes in the fourteenth century of the Common Era. The phylogenetic analysis of the Kazakhstan data and of currently available WGS data of worldwide origin strengthens our understanding of B. anthracis geographic expansions in the past seven centuries.

Social agency and prestige technology: serial production of gold appliqués in the early Iron Age north-west China and the Eurasian steppes

ABSTRACT Recent discoveries in north-west China and the Central Asian steppes have shed new light on the study of power display and material connections amongst nomadic groups during the development of gold-making technology in Iron Age Eurasia. Bringing together material science and archaeological approaches, this paper presents an interdisciplinary study of serially produced gold artefacts recovered from the elite burials of north-west China, to gain a better understanding of the inventive nature of early gold-making industry. In particular, we find that the technology used to craft the gold appliqués found in the Xigou cemetery (3rd-2nd centuries BCE) in north-west China attested to the use of moulds or matrices for serial production, closely linked to technological practice of the central Asians steppes. We consider the spread of the peculiar technique and iconography as a tangible way to examine technology transfer and cultural interactions. The contextual analysis reveals that the mould-pressing technique, the animal-style gold artefacts, and the burial practice of using prestigious gold as body adornment constitute a shared set of material expressions of the status and power of nomadic elites in north-west China, Kazakhstan and southern Siberia. Technological practice, in turn, opens up new research avenues in the field, recalibrating our recognition and understanding the active involvement of material objects in human life and culture.