Asian Immigrants Research Articles

Immigrant Entrepreneurship in Cities: Global Perspectives

Immigration is a topic of enduring interest. In addition, immigrant communities, as cultural, economic and political emblems, have always existed in global cities. Immigrant Entrepreneurship in Cities: Global Perspectives, edited by Prof. Cathy Yang Liu, provides a comprehensive insight into the experiences of immigrant entrepreneurs in 13 diverse urban cities across five continents. This book employs a traditionally comparative approach to analyze the economic and development differences between the Global North and the Global South. One of its key innovations, however, is the theoretical framework used to explore emerging economies like South Africa and Brazil. By reading this book, readers can gain a panoramic and brand-new understanding of immigrant entrepreneurship in some immigrant cities. In their opening words of Part I, Lauren W. Forbes and Cathy Y. Liu introduce the connections between global cities and economic patterns using the theoretical framework of comparative analysis and transnational immigration studies. In the aftermath of WWII, Sydney, the fourth greatest immigrant city in the contemporary world, introduced large-scale settler immigration programs that saw it accept people from countries, such as Korea, Lebanon, etc., and refugees from Iraq and Syria. Unlike late immigrants (the post-1997) to Hong Kong, Sydney has witnessed several generations of family immigration who have brought distinctive lifestyles and business careers. Korean immigrants in Sydney have succeeded in building the intergenerational businesses such as restaurants, supermarkets and hotels. By contrast, indigent refugees or humanitarian immigrants from Africa have found it harder to start businesses because they are more poorly educated. By the authority of the Chinese Central Government, Hong Kong, as a global intermediary in entrepôt trade, experienced an economic boom, which motivated many local people and attracted many British, Americans and Austrians to establish their businesses since its handover in 1997. However, this boom relied upon large numbers of low-paid laborers from South Asian nations like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Comparatively speaking, on the other side of the world, European and American cities, like Barcelona, Paris, New York, El Paso and Washington, DC, reveal the varying ecology of immigration communities. Asian and African immigrants participate widely in the food service market in Barcelona and Paris. Their particular national and ethnic foodstuffs bring people together in the urban neighborhoods but can create the derisive name of ‘commercial ghettoes’ that are separate from the white mainstream but serve as a conduit for Europeans to know about the communities. On the other hand, besides trans-pacific Asian immigrants like Chinese, Koreans, Indians, Vietnamese and Filipinos to the USA, Hispanic immigration from countries, such as Cuba, Mexico, Venezuela and Puerto Rico, also make up a significant share of immigration to the USA owing to their proximity to the US border. It is notable that, according to the figures of the US Census Bureau, of the 1,050,911 firms in New York City, 51 percent of them are minority-owned (p. 102). Furthermore, in New York City, successful self-employed Hispanic businesspeople are also key players in the ethnic leadership in the city, advocating for working-class immigrants and maintaining good relationship with local politicians and with mestizo elites in New York’s professional sphere (p. 104). This resonates with similar cases of Mongolians, Nepalese, Salvadorans, Ethiopians and Eritreans in Washington, DC, who have developed livelihoods as street peddlers, bakers or small restaurant owners.

Cardiovascular Disease in South Asian Immigrants: a Review of Dysfunctional HDL as a Potential Marker.

South Asians (SAs) account for a quarter of the world’s population and are one of the fastest-growing immigrant groups in the United States (US). South Asian Immigrants (SAIs) are disproportionately more at risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD) than other ethnic/racial groups. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disorder and is the major cause of CVD. Traditional CVD risk factors, though important, do not fully explain the elevated risk of CVD in SAIs. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) are heterogeneous lipoproteins that modify their composition and functionality depending on physiological or pathological conditions. With its cholesterol efflux, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant functions, HDL is traditionally considered a protective factor for CVD. However, its functions can be compromised under pathological conditions, such as chronic inflammation, making it dysfunctional (Dys-HDL). SAIs have a high prevalence of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome, which may further promote Dys-HDL. This review explores the potential association between Dys-HDL and CVD in SAIs and presents current literature discussing the role of Dys-HDL in CVD.

Acculturation, Discrimination and 24-h Activity in Asian American Immigrant Women.

Asian American immigrant (AAI) women may have suboptimal 24-h activity patterns due to traditional gender role and caregiving responsibilities. However, little is known about their objectively-measured activity. We measured AAI women's 24-h activity patterns using accelerometry and examined cultural correlates of time in sedentary behavior (SB), light intensity physical activity (LIPA), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sleep. Seventy-five AAI women completed surveys on acculturation (years of U.S. residency and English proficiency), discrimination, and sleep quality, and 7days of wrist- and hip-accelerometer monitoring. Linear regression was conducted controlling for age, BMI, and education. We also compared activity patterns across Asian subgroups (East, Southeast, South Asians). On average, AAI women had 33min of MVPA, 6.1h of LIPA, 10h of SB, and 5.3h of sleep per day. South Asian women had the longest SB and the shortest sleep and MVPA hours. English proficiency was negatively related to MVPA (p = 0.03) and LIPA (p < 0.01). Years of U.S. residency was positively related to SB (p = 0.07). Discrimination was related to shorter (p = 0.03) and poorer quality sleep (p = 0.06). Culturally-tailored programs targeting SB and sleep and integrating coping strategies against discrimination could help optimize AAI women's 24-h activity patterns.

Notes on Contributors

David Arnold is Professor of History at Columbia Basin College where he teaches courses in US, Native American, and African American history. His first book, The Fishermen's Frontier: People and Salmon in Southeast Alaska (University of Washington Press, 2008) is a social and environmental history of Indian and non-Indian fishermen from precontact to present.Matthew M. Babcock is Associate Professor of History at the University of North Texas at Dallas and author of Apache Adaptation to Hispanic Rule. He received his PhD at Southern Methodist University, and he focuses on the history of North American borderlands, American Indians, and the colonial Southwest.Rosie C. Bermudez is Assistant Professor of History at the University of California, San Diego. Her research and teaching interests include Chicana grassroots activism, social movements, and women of color feminisms. Bermudez is currently writing a book about Chicana activist Alicia Escalante and the East Los Angeles Welfare Rights Organization.Dea H. Boster is Associate Professor of History in the Humanities Department at Columbus State Community College in Columbus, Ohio. She has published several works on the history of American medicine and disability, including African American Slavery and Disability: Bodies, Property, and Power in the Antebellum South (Routledge, 2012).Heather D. Curtis is the Warren S. Woodbridge Professor of Religion at Tufts University, where she also holds appointments in the Department of History and the Department of Studies in Race, Colonialism, and Diaspora. Curtis received her doctorate in American Religion from Harvard University. Her research explores how religion has shaped responses to racial injustice, humanitarian disasters, and bodily illness from the late nineteenth century to the present.Justene Hill Edwards is Assistant Professor of History at the University of Virginia. She is the author of Unfree Markets: The Slaves’ Economy and the Rise of Capitalism in South Carolina (2021).David G. García earned his PhD in US History at UCLA and is Associate Professor in the UCLA School of Education and Information Studies. He is the author of the award-winning book Strategies of Segregation: Race, Residence, and the Struggle for Educational Equality (University of California Press, 2018).Lyrianne E. González is a History PhD student minoring in Latino Studies at Cornell University. She is a mid-twentieth-century historian with focuses in US labor history, US foreign labor relations, US–Mexico relations, and im/migration. Her research investigates the racial and generational legacies of US agricultural guestworker programs.José G. Moreno is a full-time senior lecturer in ethnic studies and sociology and the Associate Director of the Ethnic Studies Program at Northern Arizona University. He has published various peer review articles, critical essays, and book reviews in academic publications.Mark Newman is a reader in history at the University of Edinburgh. He thanks the University of Edinburgh Development Trust Research Fund, the British Academy, the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, and the Leverhulme Trust for the financial support that made this article possible.Lucy E. Salyer is Professor of History at the University of New Hampshire. She is the author of Under the Starry Flag (Harvard University Press, 2018), Laws Harsh as Tigers (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), and numerous articles on the history of immigration and citizenship policy.Ryan E. Santos is a lecturer in the Social and Cultural Analysis of Education program at California State University, Long Beach and in the Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies Department at California State University, Los Angeles. His research and teaching emphasize educational history with an emphasis on race, community resistance, and the law.Cameron Tardif is a PhD student who studies twentieth-century US history at Cornell University. His research focuses on how the relationship of slavery and freedom between the United States and Canada impacts the experiences of transnational black athletes. His work has been published in the Journal of Sport History.Lila Teeters is Visiting Assistant Professor of History and Political Science at Worcester State University. She received her PhD in American History from the University of New Hampshire in 2021. Her dissertation is entitled “Native Citizens: The Fight for and against Native American Citizenship, 1887–1924.”Tara J. Yosso is Professor in the Graduate School of Education at UC Riverside. Her research seeks to recover counter-narratives of race, schooling, inequality, and the law. Her extensively cited publications examine the ways people of color utilize community cultural wealth to survive and resist racism and other forms of subordination.Hao Zou is an independent scholar based in San Francisco. His research interests include Asian American history, immigration history, race and ethnicity, and the history of the American West.

A Nation of Immigrants Reconsidered: US Society in An Age of Restriction, 1924–1965

A Nation of Immigrants Reconsidered: US Society in An Age of Restriction, 1924–1965

Barriers to Follow Up Care in the South Asian Immigrant Population at High Risk of Acute Coronary Syndrome at Elmhurst Hospital Center.

We studied South Asian immigrant patients who did not return to Elmhurst Hospital Center (EHC) after emergent cardiac catheterization in order to propose interventions to improve follow up care. We identified 74 eligible patients, interviewed 30 about follow up practices, and analyzed findings. Most patients are Bangladeshi and 77% preferred a foreign language. Some were visiting the US during the admission without intent to follow up. Half were dissatisfied with EHC providers, complications, and inadequate care at follow up appointments. Some patients were unaware of scheduled appointments or the necessity of follow up. Most follow with private providers due to language accessibility, availability, and proximity. We found that language barriers contribute to loss to follow up and the true loss to follow up rate is lower than reported at EHC. This can inform practices at hospitals with immigrant populations, minimize resource waste, and improve quality of care.

High-Skilled South Asian Immigrants to the USA: Integration Through Spiritual Training Lessons and Story Writing Workshops

High-Skilled South Asian Immigrants to the USA: Integration Through Spiritual Training Lessons and Story Writing Workshops

South Asian immigrants' and their family carers' beliefs, practices and experiences of childhood long-term conditions: An integrative review.

AbstractAimThe aim was to examine South Asian immigrants' beliefs, practices and experiences of childhood long‐term conditions.DesignThis was an integrative review.Data sourcesMEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science were searched for primary peer‐reviewed articles published in English between January 2011 and April 2021.Review methodsArticles were screened based on PRISMA guidelines. The quality of the studies was evaluated using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Checklist for qualitative studies and the Joanna Brigg's Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for quantitative studies.ResultsFourteen studies were included in the review. South Asian immigrant children and their family carers experienced cultural clashes as they attempted to incorporate their cultural beliefs about long‐term conditions into a more westernized biomedical approach. Families were overburdened by caregiving and struggled to find additional support for their children. The main findings were categorized into three themes: (1) cultural beliefs; (2) religious, spiritual and complementary and alternative medicine practices and (3) care and support of the child.ConclusionHealth‐care providers should use a combination of culturally safe management strategies and a nuanced approach to educational initiatives on the biomedical aspects of various long‐term conditions to effectively engage South Asian immigrant families with health services.ImpactThe growth of South Asians worldwide along with the increased burden of long‐term conditions among South Asian immigrant children has implications for health service delivery. However, no reviews to date have explored South Asian immigrants' experience of childhood long‐term conditions. Incorporating South Asian immigrants' beliefs and practices into the plan of care promotes collaborative decision‐making that can lead to better treatment adherence, improved health outcomes and higher patient and family satisfaction. The findings encourage clinicians, researchers and policymakers to develop culturally safe child/family‐centred interventions to address the specific needs of South Asian immigrant children with long‐term conditions.

“Spat On and Coughed At”: Co-Cultural Understanding of Chinese International Students’ Experiences with Stigmatization during the COVID-19 Pandemic

ABSTRACT This paper examines Chinese international students’ lived experiences of being stigmatized during the early onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. To understand their dual-marginalization due to Othered Chinese-ness (e.g. racialized immigrant Others and foreigner Asians) and presumed contagiousness (e.g. suspected, diseased, and infectious), we adopt co-cultural theory to centralize their experiences of coping with COVID-related stigmatization. Semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis demonstrate how Chinese students in this study heightened their sensitivity to ambiguous yet hostile stigmatization and how they often opted for nonassertive, non-confrontational, and threat-avoiding coping strategies. We reflect on how current health and racism crises further marginalize immigrant Others in general and Chinese immigrants in particular. We conclude with discussing theoretical application of co-cultural theory to understand stigmatizing and stigmatized health communication.

Abstract P186: Healthcare Access Disparities Among Asian, African, And Latino Immigrants With Hypertension Or Diabetes In The 2010-2018 National Health Interview Survey

Background: Morbidity and mortality due to cardiovascular disease (CVD) disproportionately affects racial and ethnic minorities and can be mitigated by access to preventative services. However, research describing health access in immigrants with CVD risk in the US is lacking. Hypothesis: Immigrants with hypertension or diabetes will have less healthcare access (HCA) than US-born non-Hispanic (NH) White persons. Methods: We analyzed cross-sectional data from the 2010-2018 National Health Interview Survey on 75,631 Asian (N=3,120), African (N=393), and Latino (N=7,315) immigrants and US-born NH White (N=64,803) people with hypertension or diabetes. HCA was defined as insurance coverage, usual place for sick care, and delay in care due to cost. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine disparities in HCA between immigrants and NH Whites and compared HCA among immigrants stratified by length of US residence. Results: Participants had a mean (±SE) age of 60.4 (±0.1) years (52% female). After adjusting for sociodemographic factors, health status, and region, Asian immigrants were 13% more likely to be insured than NH Whites, but this pattern was not statistically significant (95% CI: 0.93-1.39, Table ). Compared to NH Whites, African [adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 0.56; 95% CI: 0.39-0.80] and Latino (AOR: 0.65; 95% CI: 0.57-0.74) immigrants were less likely to be insured, and Asian (AOR: 0.50; 95% CI: 0.41-0.60) and Latino (AOR: 0.70; 95% CI: 0.63-0.79) immigrants were less likely to delay care due to cost. All immigrant groups were less likely to have a usual place for sick care. Compared to those with &lt;10 years of US residence, HCA did not improve in African immigrants with ≥10 years of residence (data not shown). Conclusion: Immigrants with CVD risk are less likely to establish a usual place for sick care, yet Asian immigrants may be less likely to experience gaps in HCA compared to NH White people. CVD health policies must account for heterogeneity among and within immigrant groups to improve HCA and prevent CVD complications.

Differences in Barriers to Healthcare and Discrimination in Healthcare Settings Among Undocumented Immigrants by Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) Status

Undocumented immigrants face barriers to and discrimination in healthcare, but those with Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) status may fare better. This analysis uses the cross-sectional BRAVE Study of young undocumented Latinx and Asian immigrants to examine differences in barriers to and discrimination in healthcare by DACA status. A majority of respondents experienced financial, language, and cultural barriers, and up to half experienced documentation status barriers, discrimination when seeking healthcare or by a health provider, and negative experiences related to documentation status. In multivariable analyses, DACA recipients have over 90% lower odds of language and cultural barriers, approximately 80% lower odds of discrimination when seeking healthcare and by a health provider, and approximately 70% lower odds of documentation status barriers and negative experience related to documentation status compared to nonrecipients. These findings indicate that DACA recipients experience fewer barriers to healthcare and discrimination in healthcare compared to nonrecipients.

'Cost, culture and circumstances': Barriers and enablers of health behaviours in South Asian immigrants of Australia.

The health behaviours related to chronic diseases experienced by South Asian immigrants are interrelated with their culture and socioeconomic conditions. South Asian immigrants experience a disproportionate burden of chronic disease compared with non‐immigrants Australian‐born general population. The primary aim of this study was to gain an in‐depth understanding of health behaviours and healthcare access in the South Asian immigrant population of Australia. Five focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with South Asian immigrants (n = 29; 18 females) aged 27–50 years in Brisbane, Australia. Separate FGDs were conducted for males and females in the English language. Semi‐structured guided questions related to the perception, barriers and facilitators of health behaviours. Data were analysed with Nvivo‐12 following a thematic analysis. A conceptual model is proposed to provide a summarised understanding of barriers and facilitators of health behaviours in South Asian immigrants. The major reported constraints for participating in physical activity were cultural beliefs, lack of time, work stress and high fees of fitness activities, while parks and peer modelling were mentioned as a strong motivator for walking, cycling and participating in group sports activities. The cultural and religious connections, cost of cigarettes and drink driving penalties were the most mentioned facilitators for a healthy lifestyle. The important factors related to unhealthy eating habits were the traditional cooking methods, social interactions and the high cost of fruits and vegetables. Community perceptions and language barriers were also acknowledged as the main factors for the decrease in accessing health care services. This study illustrates that cultural beliefs, high cost of healthy food and facilities and social circumstances are mainly linked with the health behaviours and healthcare access in South Asian immigrant's lifestyles.

Immigrant Asian Indian Mothers' Experiences With Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Infant Care in the United States.

The purpose of the study was to explore experiences of immigrant Asian Indian women with pregnancy, childbirth, and infant care in the United States. This study employed a qualitative descriptive approach using semi-structured interviews and followed COREQ (COnsolidated criteria for REporting Qualitative research) guidelines for reporting qualitative research. Nine immigrant Asian Indian mothers residing in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States participated in the study. Four themes emerged: experiencing cultural differences during the perinatal period in the United States, choosing the best perinatal practices for maternal and infant care, recognizing family as the main support system, and having positive experiences with health care providers. Findings of this study shed light on the need for culturally appropriate care, including proper assessment of Asian Indian mothers' sociocultural aspects and cultural preferences and provision of support and information needed during the perinatal period.

Multifaceted Intergroup Relations in an American Town—Immigrant Intrusion, Symbiosis, and Invisibility

Based on ethnographic fieldwork, this article explores the intricate relationships between three major ethno-racial groups residing in a suburban town in the New York metropolitan area. At the present time, the prosperous Korean ethnoburb is gentrified by Korean immigrants, triggering the displacement of the old-timers, referred to as the “White exodus” in this research. Granted that the cheap labor is in high demand in the rejuvenating neighborhood, the town has become a magnet for Guatemalan immigrants who have established their own ethnic islet in the vicinity. While the relationships between the Asian immigrants and the White old-timers generated by invasion-succession trends are full of resentment, the work-related interactions between the Asian and Hispanic (mostly Guatemalan) immigrants can be described as immigrant symbiosis. Both groups are aware of explicit exploitation, but they need and rely on each other to attain their own “American dream.”

Immigrants' perspectives on healthy life and healthy lifestyle counseling: a focus group study.

Immigrants have a higher risk of developing chronic diseases than the general population, but there is a lack of knowledge about appropriate counseling models to promote their health. This study aimed to explore Asian and Russian immigrants' perspectives in Finland on healthy lifestyle and healthy lifestyle counseling to improve the quality of the counseling in primary health care services to prevent type 2 diabetes and other chronic diseases. We conducted a qualitative study using semi-structured questions for eight focus groups. The participants were 46 adult immigrants (21 Asian and 25 Russian) living legally in Finland. Interviews were transcribed verbatim, coded, and analyzed using deductive content analysis. We identified three themes regarding healthy lifestyle: (1) limited knowledge on different dimensions of healthy lifestyle, (2) understanding the impact of culture and community on healthy living, and (3) changing the lifestyle to live healthier after immigration. Moreover, we found three themes regarding healthy lifestyle counseling: (1) shortcomings in health care for providing healthy lifestyle counseling, such as lack of educational materials and miscommunication, (2) influential individual factors for using healthy lifestyle counseling, such as stress, and (3) positive outcomes of healthy lifestyle counseling. Developing a culturally tailored healthy lifestyle counseling program for the enhancement of immigrants' knowledge regarding healthy lifestyle with consideration of cultural and linguistic aspects is recommended for preventing chronic diseases among immigrants.

Correlates of Undiagnosed Hypertension Among Chinese and Korean American Immigrants.

Asian Americans are more likely to be unaware that they have hypertension compared to non-Hispanic white Americans, despite having higher risk of hypertension at lower body-mass indices. Furthermore, immigrants are more likely than their United States (U.S.)-born counterparts to have undiagnosed hypertension, placing them at greater risk of subsequent morbidity and mortality. This study examines the social determinants of undiagnosed hypertension among Asian American immigrants. Using a study of foreign-born Chinese and Korean Americans between the ages of 50–75 years-old recruited from physicians’ clinics in the Baltimore-Washington DC Metropolitan Area (n = 355), we used blood pressure readings measured by trained staff members, self-reported diagnosis by a medical professional, and self-reported hypertension medication use to determine hypertension status—whether patients were non-hypertensive, had diagnosed hypertension, or had undiagnosed hypertension. Using multinomial logistic regression, we examined how demographic, socioeconomic, and immigration-related factors were associated with hypertension status. Results indicated that older age, male gender, Korean subgroup, and marital status were associated with having diagnosed hypertension compared to being non-hypertensive. Lack of health insurance was the strongest predictor of having undiagnosed hypertension compared to being non-hypertensive. Acculturation variables had no strong associations with hypertension status. We then explored correlates of health insurance status for Chinese and Korean American immigrants. Those without health insurance were more likely to have lower income and to be not currently employed. Our findings point to the importance of increasing health insurance access for Asian American immigrant groups to ensure that hypertension is not left undiagnosed and untreated.

Reasons behind Low Cervical Screening Uptake among South Asian Immigrant Women: A Qualitative Exploration.

Despite advancements in prevention strategies, cervical cancer remains a leading cause of death among underprivileged women. Although Australia has low age-standardized cervical cancer incidence rates compared with other countries, disparities exist in cervical screening uptake among certain population subgroups, especially those from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds. South Asian immigrant women have been reported to have lower cervical screening uptake than Australian-born women and those from other immigrant backgrounds. The objective of this study was to gain insight into the reasons and barriers for low cervical screening participation among South Asian immigrant women, through qualitative exploration. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with 20 women, aged 26–50 years, living in Queensland, Australia, who were recruited via purposive sampling. After translation and transcription of recorded interviews, data was analysed via inductive thematic approach. Resulting themes, illustrating barriers towards screening, included: lack of cervical cancer and screening knowledge, especially of the changes in the revised screening program; effect of preventive, health-seeking behaviours; health care system factors; role of practical constraints and influence of sociocultural beliefs. Results suggest that culturally informed interventions, that involve relevant information provision and behavioural change strategies, to clarify women’s misconceptions, are required.

The interacting effects of religion and birthplace on the labour market outcomes of Asian immigrants in Australia

The interacting effects of religion and birthplace on the labour market outcomes of Asian immigrants in Australia

Unravelling Discourses on COVID-19, South Asians and Punjabi Canadians

This article uses critical discourse analysis to examine how the higher COVID-19 infection rates among South Asians in general, and Punjabis more specifically, have been represented by conservative politicians and their representatives as a consequence of cultural and religious practices. Two counter-narratives are discussed. The first substitutes the negative image of the Sikh Punjabi Canadian community with a celebratory and positive view of Sikh humanitarianism and community service. The second attributes the high numbers to class attributes such as precarious jobs, poverty-level wages, employment insecurity, lack of sick days, over-crowded housing, racism and lack of access to healthcare. We argue that the conservative explanation as well as the first counter-narrative reveal continuities in culturalist understandings of South Asian immigrants, albeit in slightly different ways. The second counter-narrative represents a discursive resistance by advancing a structural analysis of health and disease in immigrant communities.

The Legal Oxymoron of Whiteness in “The Laws” Chapter of China Men by Maxine Hong Kingston

The article centers on the legal construction of whiteness captured by Maxine Hong Kingston in “The Laws” chapter of China Men (1980), exposing the oxymoron of whiteness, which consists in its simultaneous gesturing towards universality and particularity. On the one hand, the laws passed by white Americans enabled them to cast whiteness as the self-proclaimed standard-bearer, the self-declared legal norm. On the other hand, this self-proclaimed norm rests on the principle of exclusivity and exclusion. Wielding a weapon of exclusion, white people have constructed a legally manufactured white identity that bars non-whites, in this case Chinese and other Asian immigrants from citizenship, economic resources, space, the “mainstream” American society and mainstream American culture. Kingston not only exposes anti-Chinese and anti-Asian legislation, but also shows Chinese immigrants’ responses to this legislation, their failed and successful attempts at countervailing various forms of exclusion and “exclusive” treatment they received.