As-received Condition Research Articles

Effect of heat treatment on the properties of solution annealed and hot rolled Incoloy 20

Microstructural and mechanical properties of Incoloy 20 were investigated in the as-received (hot rolled and solution annealed) and various heat-treated conditions. Particular interest has been shown to identify the characterization of primary and secondary precipitates at elevated temperatures. As-received Incoloy 20 microstructures revealed fine and twin-annealed grain structures. Incoloy 20 is heat-treated with three different temperatures (700°, 900°, and 1100 °C) at duration of 5 and 10 h. Reduction of segregation and coarsened grain structures is noticed while increasing the homogenization temperature. However, the grain structure remained same with diminution of strength and increased ductility. After the heat treatment, the tensile strength reduced gradually while increasing the temperature for Incoloy 20. The microstructures of the heat-treated specimens revealed the porous structure at grain boundary regions majorly at 900 °C with both durations. In this study, optimal operating temperature for Incoloy 20 is 700 °C where strength remain similar to base metal and also similar microstructure noticed.

Investigation of the Influence of Powder Moisture on the Spreadability Using the Spreading Tester

Moisture is often regarded as one of the main reasons for poor processability of powders using Laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) processes. To determine the influence of moisture on the spreadability, a superalloy powder IN718 commonly used for L‑PBF processes has been conditioned in two different states: once in the as-received and dry condition and once in a moist condition obtained by storing the powder for four weeks in an atmosphere containing a relative humidity of 75%. Using a self-built spreading tester and a subsequent analysis method specially developed for testing the spreadability of a powder, the differently conditioned IN718 powder batches have been investigated regarding the surface roughness and flatness of the powder layers. Additionally, the formation of empty spots between the powder particles in the top layer has been studied.

Ferrite phase transformation in dual-phase steel under shock loading

Microstructural changes and ferrite phase transformation under shock loading, between 8.5 GPa and 17.5 GPa, in a hot-rolled Lean Duplex Stainless Steel (commercially known as LDX 2101) were investigated in as-received and pre-deformed conditions. The latter condition was considered to distinguish classical deformation twins at high strain rates from those associated to the reversible ferrite phase transformation. Plate impact experiments were used to introduce compressive shock loading at peak stresses below and above the stress threshold of the ferrite phase transformation, 13 GPa. Effects of shock loading were also examined by compressing shocked samples quasi-statically and comparing their response with those tested in the as-received condition. The microstructural examinations revealed that the ferrite in LDX 2101 experienced a reversible phase transformation at a peak stress of ~17 GPa. The fingerprints for this transformation were {112}<111> primary twins and {332}<113> primary and secondary twins. In addition, the yield stress of the sample pre-shocked at ~17 GPa showed a considerable increase (⁓150 MPa) compared to the flow stress in as-received conditions.

Single-Step Heat Treatment for the Restoration of Mechanical Properties of Cold-Strained Mining Support Steel 31Mn4

The steel 31Mn4+QT630 is used frequently for mining support arches. The supports are cold strained, first during service, and again by re-rolling prior to reinstallation, which results in strain hardening and a loss of ductility. Consequently, many of the rerolled arch-segments are not suitable for reinstallation because their mechanical properties are inadequate. The objective of this work was to assess the feasibility of restoration of the required mechanical properties by means of a cost-efficient single step heat treatment. Specimens were cold deformed to different degrees in the range 0 % to 45 % to establish the relation between the degree of cold deformation and the hardness. Differently strain hardened specimens were subjected to subcritical annealing at temperatures 450 °C to 700 °C in the duration 0.5 h to 8 h to determine a suitable time-temperature combinations. Microstructures and mechanical properties were investigated of as-received, cold strained and recrystallized specimens. Tests performed were optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, tensile tests, hardness measurements and Charpy impact tests. Elongation at break of the as-received material was below the requirements of the applicable standard, and its microstructure contained significant fractions of pre-eutectoid ferrite and pearlite. Upon cold straining, hardness increased by approximately 2 HV per 1 % of strain. After one-hour recrystallization at 600 °C to 620 °C, the microstructure consisted of a ferritic matrix containing evenly dispersed globular carbide particles. The original ductility was restored, while the elongation, yield strength, and hardness were higher than in the as-received condition. These results confirmed that it is feasible to restore the original mechanical properties of heavily strained profiles with an adequate single-step heat treatment. Furthermore, they indicated that it should be possible to recover the required properties of inhomogeneously strained material with the same set of well optimized heat treatment parameters. Consequently, it should be possible to increase the reuse rate and to decrease the costs for new support arches significantly.

Processability of Moist Superalloy Powder by SLM

Moisture is often claimed to be one of the main reasons for poor processability of powders when using L‑PBF processes. To determine the influence of moisture on the processability, gas atomized superalloy powder IN718 has been printed in two parallel runs: once in the as-received and dry condition and once after four weeks of storage in an atmosphere containing a relative humidity of 75%. Thereby different specimens have been prepared for notched impact tests, tensile tests, roughness, and metallographic analysis. Furthermore, the chemical composition of the powder before and after the build job as well as that of the printed parts have been analysed. The results obtained with the differently conditioned powders have been compared in the end to determine the influence of humidity on the processability on IN718 powder.

Microstructural and mechanical characterization of the effect of the welding process on creep behavior of welded joint and base metal specimens of Inconel 600

AbstractIn this study, plates of Inconel 600 superalloy were gas metal arc welded to investigate the effects of the welding process on the creep behavior of the welded samples and compare it to the creep behavior of samples in the as-received condition. Creep tests were performed at two temperatures (600 and 650 °C) with different stress levels. During the welding process, three distinctive microstructural zones are generated, i.e. welded material, heat affected zone, and base metal that may affect the properties of the welded joint. Microstructural, elemental analysis of samples was conducted using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The experimental results show that creep rupture preferentially occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base metal at 4 mm from the fusion line and that the creep behavior of welded samples is different from that of the base metal. These results can be used in the design of structural components to assure their structural integrity.

Viscoelastically active sutures – A stitch in time?

We present results to show that a commercially available polypropylene suture filament (Ethicon Prolene), following annealing and tensile creep can, after creep load removal, release viscoelastically stored energy over a period of several weeks. Specifically, over 0.1–1000 h, the suture undergoes a time-dependent contraction of ~4% and, following a short recovery time (~3 min) to a fixed strain, produces a progressively increasing recovery force of ~0.1–1 N. We suggest that this time-dependent energy release may facilitate wound healing by the action of viscoelastically induced mechanotransduction (VIM). Moreover, our recent (published) findings have led to evidence of reduced hydrophobicity from viscoelastically recovering polymeric filaments and speculation that this may emanate from the long-term release of electric charges. Thus, we propose that the latter may enhance the VIM mechanism. In this paper, we report on the direct detection of these charges and the first findings from an investigation involving the presence of cell cultures on Prolene samples that are (i) viscoelastically recovering, (ii) annealed only and (iii) in as-received condition. From (i), the results demonstrate a significant increase in cell motility, with migration towards the suture, compared to (ii) and (iii). This suggests greater stimulation of the wound healing process, an effect which is expected to continue for the duration of the viscoelastic recovery period.

The effect of processing parameters on magnetic properties of an epoxy resin-bonded isotropic Nd–Fe–B magnet

Ring-shaped epoxy resin-bonded magnets were fabricated using an isotropic nano-crystalline melt spun Nd–Fe–B powder. The magnets were produced from a mixture of the isotropic powder and some epoxy resins as binders, using a compression-molding technique. The morphology and average particle size of the powders were examined using an SEM. The magnetic properties of the magnets were evaluated using a hysteresis loop tracer. The effects of milling time, binder type and content, hardener amount, lubricant percentage, pressing pressure, and curing temperature and time on magnetic properties of magnets were studied. It was found that the magnetic properties of the bonded magnets were the best in an as-received condition of ribbons, and any particle size reduction by milling results in reduction in permanent magnetic properties. The best magnetic properties were attained for the bonded magnets produced using a two-component air-dried liquid epoxy resin. The optimized binder content, lubricant percentage, pressing pressure, curing temperature and time in these magnets were as: 3 wt%, 0.4 wt%, 900 MPa, room temperature and 24 h, respectively. The optimal magnetic properties were as follows: Br = 7 kG, HcJ = 9.10 kOe and (BH)max = 11.5 MGOe. However, the best thermal stability was obtained when the bonded magnets were produced using a solid powder epoxy resin with a special aromatic hardener.

The Effects of Reduction and Thermal Treatment on the Recrystallization and Crystallographic Texture Evolution of 5182 Aluminum Alloy

During forming, thickness reduction and thermal treatment affect the recrystallization and evolution of the crystallographic texture of metallic materials. The present study focuses on the consequences of rolling reduction of a widespread aluminum alloy with numerous automotive, marine and general-purpose applications, namely Al 5182. Emphasis is laid on the crystallographic texture and mechanical properties on both hot and cold-rolled semi-final products. In particular, a 2.8 mm-thick hot-rolled product was examined in the as-received condition, while two cold-rolled sheets, one 1.33 mm and the other 0.214 mm thick, both originating from the 2.8 mm material, were examined in both as-received and annealed (350 °C for 1 h) conditions. Electron back-scatter diffraction indicated the presence of a large percentage of random texture as well as a weak recrystallization texture for the hot-rolled product, whereas in the case of cold rolling the evolution of β-fiber texture was noted. In addition, tensile tests showed that both the anisotropy as well as the mechanical properties of the cold-rolled properties improved after annealing, being comparable to hot-rolled ones.

Digital and experimental rock analysis of proppant injection into naturally fractured coal

Proppant-laden fluid injection has been applied to many low permeability reservoirs, such as coal seams, to enhance permeability and thus production. While there are several laboratory-scale experimental studies on proppant placement in hydraulic fractures, the possible infiltration of proppant into natural fractures and its effect on overall permeability has received little attention. We study proppant injection into a naturally fractured coal sample by a combination of experimental and digital rock technologies. The sample was imaged using a helical X-ray computed tomography (micro-CT) scanner in as-received condition. Then, proppants of different size ranges were gradually injected into the sample, using a purpose-built X-ray transparent core flooding system, and the permeability was measured at different effective stresses. Subsequently, the propped sample was re-imaged and registered to the as-received image to map the internal changes. The experimental results indicated almost no permeability change of the sample after proppant injection. While proppant collection in the outlet proved passage of the proppant through the sample, observation of the sample indicated that some of the proppants were accumulated on the inlet face of the core and created a filter leading to no permeability increment. Micro-CT images confirmed that proppants were effectively placed in the sample and kept the fractures open. Numerical computation of permeability, using the digital coal sample in which accumulated proppants at the coal surface were excluded, indicated a significant increase in the sample permeability. Such an increase resulted from the opening of the fractures, particularly in the outlet region. This demonstrated the significance of proppant size selection for coal seam hydraulic fracturing. While proppants were successfully placed in the fractures, the experiment measured the permeability of the system, including proppants accumulated on the inlet, and could not effectively map the internal changes. This, therefore, needs to be considered when an experimental program for proppant injection is executed. To accurately monitor the internal changes, application of digital rock technology is recommended for such experiments.

Contribution in developing a rapid strategy in assessing hardened steel machining

The present work is a contribution to developing a strategy for rapid analysis of the behaviour of surface roughness and tool wear during machining hardened steel with carbide cemented cutting tools on conventional cutting machines. In agreement with dies and mould manufacturers in East Algeria, the strategy is based on the machining potential of the manufacturers, cutting tools manufacturer’s guidelines and recommendations from literature. The agreement suggested to focus on up and down shoulder finish milling of hardened AISI D3 tool steel using GC1030 insert on a conventional vertical milling machine. The strategy has been developed within five successive steps starting from the analyses of the performance of a machine tool to the definition of an experimental plan to respect. As expected, results show that down shoulder milling is the most suitable process rather than up shoulder milling which must be avoided whatever the hardening condition. In addition, the best performance of down shoulder milling is obtained when machining unhardened steel. In the as-received condition (31.6 HRc) when using down milling the cutting speed can be increased up to the maximum value of 113 m/min, however, the tool life obtained for this value is three times lower than that at Vc = 59 m/min. In 49 HRc hardening condition, milling at Vc = 59 m/min resulted in the good surface finish but with a tool life 6.5 times lower than the tool life when milling in the as-received condition. Vibration measurements provide a time referential data on the evolution of surface roughness together with corresponding tool wear. A time referential data on the evolution of displacement together with the corresponding tool life has been proposed as useful information to meet the needs of dies and moulds manufacturers when milling hardened steels.

Effects of Surface Roughness on the Electrochemical Properties and Galvanic Corrosion Behavior of CFRP and SPCC Alloy.

This study investigated the potentiodynamic corrosion behavior of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) and automotive rolled mild steel alloy (SPCC alloy) under different surface roughness conditions. Electrochemical characterization was performed using a potentiodynamic corrosion test with 5.0 wt.% NaCl aqueous solution at 25 ± 2 °C, while microstructural and compositional changes before and after corrosion were evaluated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), respectively. The CFRP and SPCC corrosion rate increased as surface roughness increased. Generally, SPCC corroded faster than CFRP. The surface composition of CFRP was not affected by corrosion, regardless of the surface roughness conditions. Conversely, SPCC exhibited remarkable changes due to the formation of oxides, and its corrosion was more severe than that of CFRP as surface roughness increased. We used a double flat electrode cell to conduct a galvanic corrosion test in this study at 25 ± 2 °C. In this galvanic corrosion test, we studied different kinds of surface roughness for SPCC specimens under the CFRP material in its as-received condition and #200 condition. We confirmed that the results of galvanic corrosion for this study have a difference in corrosion amount and corrosion rate of SPCC specimens according to the surface roughness of CFRP.

Effect of annealing temperature on slurry erosion resistance of ferritic X10CrAlSi18 steel

In the present work, the slurry erosion tests were carried out to investigate the influence of heat treatment on slurry erosion process of ferritic X10CrAlSi18 stainless steel using a slurry pot test rig. X10CrAlSi18 stainless steel was tested in as-received condition and after annealing at three different temperatures: 600 °C, 800 °C and 1000 °C. Degradation of materials due to slurry erosion depends on many factors connected with fluid flow conditions, properties of target material and erodent characteristics. In this case, factors related to the properties of the eroded material such as microstructure, grain size, work hardening, hardness played an important role. The heat treatment decreased hardness of this steel and increased erosion resistance. Microstructure was one of the most important parameters influencing the slurry erosion process of tested materials. X10CrAlSi18 stainless steel after annealing at 600 °C with fine-grained microstructure and the deepest of work hardening layer obtained the best resistance to slurry erosion. Heat treatment contributed to approximately 55%, 23% and 41% decrease in mass loss compared to steel in as-received condition. After slurry erosion tests craters, fracture, ridges and flakes were observed on the eroded surface. Furthermore, to identify the dominant mechanism of erosion, the erosion efficiency parameter was used, η.

Tensile and Corrosion Properties of Anodized Ultrafine-Grained Ti–13Nb–13Zr Biomedical Alloy Obtained by High-Pressure Torsion

Severe plastic deformation (SPD) is a popular group of techniques applied to achieve the nanostructuring of the metallic biomaterials and improvement of their mechanical characteristics. One of the most commonly used SPD methods is the high-pressure torsion (HPT) technique which enables the obtainment of the microstructure with small grains and high strength. In the present study, the influence of the plastic deformation and surface modification treatment on the tensile and corrosion properties of the Ti–13Nb–13Zr (wt%) alloy is investigated. In that purpose, the coarse-grained (CG) Ti–13Nb–13Zr (TNZ) alloy was subjected to the HPT processing by applying a pressure of 4.1 GPa with a rotational speed of 0.2 rpm and 5 revolutions at room temperature to obtain the ultrafine-grained (UFG) microstructure. The alloy microstructure before and after HPT processing was analysed using the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the X-ray diffraction (XRD). The homogeneity of the UFG TNZ alloy was determined by microhardness testing and microscopic observations. The nanotubular oxide layer on the surface of the TNZ alloy, both in CG and UFG condition, was formed by electrochemical anodization in 1 M H3PO4 + NaF electrolyte for 90 min. SEM analysis was used to characterise the morphology of the anodized surfaces, while energy dispersive spectroscopy was applied to determine the chemical composition of the nanostructured layers formed at the alloy surfaces. Mechanical properties of the TNZ alloy, before and after HPT processing and electrochemical anodization, were determined by tensile testing. After tensile testing, the fractographic analysis was conducted to identify the fracture mechanisms. The potentiodynamic polarization technique was used to determine the corrosion resistance of the alloy before and after plastic deformation and surface modification treatment. The obtained results showed that the alloy is reasonably homogeneous after the HPT processing. The XRD analyses reviled the presence of α′ and β phases in the CG TNZ alloy microstructure, while the additional ω phase was detected in the microstructure of the UFG TNZ alloy. The HPT obtained alloy exhibits higher hardness and improved tensile properties than the alloy in the as-received CG condition, while the electrochemical anodization leads to a decrease of its mechanical properties. Both CG and UFG alloys show excellent corrosion stability in Ringer’s solution. Moreover, electrochemical anodization leads to a decrease or an increase of the corrosion resistance of these materials, depending on the morphology of the formed nanotubular surface layers. The results indicate that the anodized CG TNZ alloy is characterized by a lower modulus of elasticity and better corrosion resistance properties than the anodized UFG TNZ alloy.

Cure monitoring and structural health monitoring of composites using micro-braided distributed optical fibre

In this paper, cure monitoring of a composite laminate is conducted, followed by subsequent structural health monitoring (SHM). A distributed optical fibre (DOF) sensor was embedded between glass fibre fabric plies during manufacture; part of the DOF length was micro-braided using glass fibres, while the remaining length was left 'bare' (as-received condition).In situand real-time strain measurement during the infusion and curing processes of the laminate was completed. Cure monitoring of composite materials using different fibre orientations, sensor locations, raw materials, and manufacturing methods has been widely studied. However, no consensus was reached due to differences in raw materials, temperature profile, manufacturing method, fibre orientation, and sensor location. The manufactured composite plate was then subjected to repeated loading during a quasi-static four-point bending test, and the strain development along the length of the DOF was recorded. Comparable results were obtained from the micro-braided and bare sections of the DOF, showing the suitability of micro-braided optical fibres for real-time strain monitoring in composite structures. The micro-braiding DOF facilitates handling for automated manufacturing methods and can be used to follow the full life cycle of a composite from fabrication till end-of-life.

Failure analysis of casing dropping in shale oil well during large scale volume fracturing

Shale oil and gas are regarded as typical unconventional reservoir, their recovery often impedes by casing damage. Failure analysis is performed for casing dropping in shale oil well via optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), full size test and finite element modeling. Morphology observation reveals that thread remains intact under as-received condition after make up and break out. Meanwhile, galling and improper make-up position occur for slipping thread. Full size test exhibits that strength of connection declines from 783.4Kips to 697.1Kips after 9th stage fracturing, with loss of 11.0%. Finite element modeling demonstrates that contact stress reaches to high values at two ends and low values at middle part in the pin and box threads under complex stress. Casing dropping can be attributed to insufficient strength of connection due to improper make-up position, which accelerates by fracturing operation. Finally, dynamic damage effect is suggested to introduce in design of casing string in shale oil well.

Evolution of the microstructure and mechanical properties of HR3C austenitic stainless steel after ageing for up to 30,000 h at 650–750 °C

After long-term ageing of heat resistant austenitic stainless HR3C steel at 650, 700, and 750 °C for up to 30,000 h, microstructural investigations, identification of precipitates, and testing of mechanical properties were conducted. In the as-received condition, the steel had austenitic microstructures with annealed twins and numerous, large primary NbX and also Z-phase precipitates. Long-term ageing of the steel mainly resulted in numerous precipitation processes: at the grain boundaries, M23C6 carbides and σ phases occur, whereas inside the grains, Z-phase precipitates, M23C6 carbides, and σ phases are observed. The amount and size of σ phases in the structure of the HR3C steel depend on the time and temperature of ageing. The precipitation processes and coarsening decreased the plastic properties and impact energy and resulted in alloy overageing, and the yield strength and tensile strength after 30,000 h ageing were similar to the properties of the as-received steel. In the steel, σ phase precipitates had only a small effect on the toughness, and the dominant impact was shown by M23C6 carbides.

Using local GND density to study SCC initiation

Strain and geometric necessary dislocations (GNDs) have been mapped with nm-resolution around grain boundaries affected by stress corrosion cracking (SCC) or intergranular oxidation with the aim of clarifying which local conditions that trigger SCC initiation of Alloy 600 in primary water reactor (PWR) water environment. Regions studied included the cracked and uncracked portion of the same SCC-affected grain boundaries and a comparable grain boundary in the as-received condition. High-resolution “on-axis” Transmission Kikuchi Diffraction (TKD) was used to generate strain and GND density based on the cross-correlation image processing method to probe shifts of specific zone axis in the TKD patterns from all regions. All cracked boundaries analyzed had local GND densities higher than 1 × 1016 m-2. Similar grain boundaries, from as-received samples had GNDs of 5 × 1014 m-2, while an intermediate level was found in the oxidized but uncracked portion of the same GB. Results, together with a discussion on the advantages and limitations of the approach, will be presented.

Tensile and fatigue behavior of resistance spot-welded HSLA steel sheets: Effect of pre-strain in association with dislocation density

In the automotive applications, sheet metals are inevitably subjected to pre-straining during stamping operation prior to spot welding. The integrity of vehicles is governed by the static and fatigue strengths of the joints. However, the effect of pre-strain on the tensile and fatigue properties of the spot-welds on the high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel sheets has not been well studied. To abridge this gap, steel sheets of 1.2 mm thickness in as-received condition as well as after pre-straining to three different levels of 5%, 10%, and 15% were spot-welded in the form of lap-shear joints. With an increase in pre-strain, the load-bearing capacity of the joints monotonically increased, while there was no significant effect of pre-strain on the fatigue behavior and endurance limit of the joints. This difference in tensile-shear and fatigue behavior of the joints for pre-strained samples is attributed to the variation in the location of the failure, which has been explained in terms of the difference in failure mechanisms involved with the tests. The crack initiated at the base metal in case of tensile-shear tests, whereas under cyclic loading, fatigue cracks initiated between fine-grained heat affected zone (FGHAZ) and coarse grain heat affected zone (CGHAZ) located near the interfacial notch between the two welded sheets. While the location of failure in tensile-shear test is dictated by its lower strength across the joint, that in fatigue test is governed by the stress concentration. The magnitude of dislocation density has been evaluated quantitatively in the base metal, heat affected zone (HAZ), and fusion zone of weld joint using X-ray diffraction (XRD), and the dislocation substructures have been examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The increase in tensile-shear load-bearing capacity is due to increased dislocation density in base metal with pre-strain. As most of these dislocations generated due to the pre-straining are annihilated at the HAZ during welding, there was no significant effect of pre-strain on the fatigue strength of the joints. These results were corroborated by microstructural examination and micro-hardness measurements across the weld joints in as-received and pre-strained conditions.

Microstructure and texture of high manganese steel subjected to dynamic impact loading

ABSTRACT Dynamic impact response of high Mn-steel at a strain rate of 3000 s−1 was investigated using the Split Hopkinson Pressure bar. The investigated steel depicted continuous yielding at high strain rates. Additionally, the yield stress displayed a positive strain-rate sensitivity with an increasing strain rate. Microstructural evaluations displayed that strain-induced martensitic transformation and dislocation multiplication during slip were dominant plastic deformation mechanisms in the absence of deformation twinning which contributes to the strain hardening. Adiabatic shear band and martensite to austenite reversion or dynamic recrystallisation were also attributed to strain softening during impact deformation. The {001}<110> R-cube, {011}<110> R-Goss, and ({111}<110>) E texture components were strengthened after impact loading compared with as-received condition, while the intensities of Cube, Cupper, Brass, and S texture components were decreased.