Artisanal Gold Mining Research Articles

Impact of climatic seasons on the dynamics of carbon, nitrogen and mercury in soils of Brazilian biomes affected by gold mining

Land use change, especially mining activities, contributes to anthropic CO2 emissions, leading to decreased carbon (C) storage and loss of biodiversity. Artisanal gold mining associated with the use of mercury (Hg) for amalgamation may change soil organic matter (SOM) contents, and the release of Hg into the environment generates serious environmental problems. Changes in soil biogeochemistry due to C loss and seasonal climate fluctuations affect Hg dynamics and can either increase or decrease its availability. Therefore, our objective was to evaluate the impact of mining on SOM and Hg geochemistry in four Brazilian biomes. We evaluated the dynamics of C and Hg in the dry and rainy seasons of mining and pasture areas by combining spectroscopic, thermogravimetric, and chemical extraction. The critical role of SOM in Hg retention and the influence of climatic seasons on C and nitrogen (N) stocks were highlighted, along with the availability of Hg in solution. Key findings indicated a 50 % reduction in soil C stocks in mined areas, exacerbated during dry seasons, which also saw up to a 70 % increase in bioavailable Hg. SOM played a critical role in Hg retention, with Hg availability closely linked to soil C stability. These results highlight the environmental degradation linked to mining and suggest strategies to mitigate these impacts by increasing SOM and immobilizing Hg. Amalgamation of gold directly into ore, as in the Amazon, has generated great soil Hg stocks, while Hg availability appeared to be governed by soil C stability. This information can serve as a basis for choosing strategies to mitigate environmental degradation caused by changes in land use in mining activities to promote increase in SOM and to immobilize Hg contents.

Community engagement in mobile and hard-to-reach populations: a community-based intervention for malaria elimination in a tri-national region of the Guiana Shield.

Several countries of the Guiana Shield are aiming at the control and elimination of malaria in areas where Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM) activities predominate, raising questions about how to strengthen community engagement to improve the effectiveness of health programs. The Curema project focuses its intervention on the mobile and hard-to-reach ASGM population, complementing the efforts of national programs in the Guiana Shield. The Curema intervention combines targeted drug administration for suspected Plasmodium vivax asymptomatic carriers, the Malakit distribution, and health education activities. The primary goals of this manuscript are to outline a pathway to foster community participation in the Curema project aimed at eliminating malaria. Thus, it presents a vision of the challenges that the AGSM community poses in terms of community participation for an asymptomatic problem; and highlights the community-based model and the Information, Education and Communication (IEC) components as foundations for participation. In addition, it also presents culturally sensitive IEC strategies designed through iterative and collaborative consultative processes and other bottom-up outreach activities. The community engagement approach facilitates adaptability and responsiveness in a complex, evolving context increasing the effectiveness of interventions.

CUREMA project: a further step towards malaria elimination among hard-to-reach and mobile populations

BackgroundIn most countries engaged on the last mile towards malaria elimination, residual transmission mainly persists among vulnerable populations represented by isolated and mobile (often cross-border) communities. These populations are sometimes involved in informal or even illegal activities. In regions with Plasmodium vivax transmission, the specific biology of this parasite poses additional difficulties related to the need for a radical treatment against hypnozoites to prevent relapses. Among hard-to-reach communities, case management, a pillar of elimination strategy, is deficient: acute malaria attacks often occur in remote areas, where there is limited access to care, and drugs acquired outside formal healthcare are often inadequately used for treatment, which typically does not include radical treatment against P. vivax. For these reasons, P. vivax circulation among these communities represents one of the main challenges for malaria elimination in many non-African countries. The objective of this article is to describe the protocol of the CUREMA study, which aims to meet the challenge of targeting malaria in hard-to-reach populations with a focus on P. vivax.ResultsCUREMA is a multi-centre, international public health intervention research project. The study population is represented by persons involved in artisanal and small-scale gold mining who are active and mobile in the Guiana Shield, deep inside the Amazon Forest. The CUREMA project includes a complex intervention composed of a package of actions: (1) health education activities; (2) targeted administration of treatment against P. vivax after screening against G6PD deficiency to asymptomatic persons considered at risk of silently carrying the parasite; (3) distribution of a self-testing and self-treatment kit (malakit) associated with user training for self-management of malaria symptoms occurring while in extreme isolation. These actions are offered by community health workers at settlements and neighbourhoods (often cross-border) that represent transit and logistic bases of gold miners. The study relies on hybrid design, aiming to evaluate both the effectiveness of the intervention on malaria transmission with a pre/post quasi-experimental design, and its implementation with a mixed methods approach.ConclusionsThe purpose of this study is to experiment an intervention that addresses both Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax malaria elimination in a mobile and isolated population and to produce results that can be transferred to many contexts facing the same challenges around the world.

Evaluating ecological risks and metal bioavailability in post-dredging sediments of a wetland affected by artisanal gold mining

The evaluation of metal contamination, ecological risk, bioavailability, and the environmental dredging depth in sediments of two Colombian riverine systems impacted by artisanal gold mining and agricultural activities, was conducted following dredging processes. Results indicated significant contamination by Cd and Pb before dredging, based on the contamination factor (CF) and the geoaccumulation index (Igeo). Additionally, Cu and Hg were found to cause adverse biological effects according to sediment quality guidelines. Post-dredging, surface sediments exhibited a moderate ecological risk index (RI, 150–300), primarily due to increased contamination by Hg, Pb, and Cd. To mitigate this ecological risk (RI < 150), the environmental dredging depth needed to exceed 20 cm for all metals. On average, the bioavailable fraction increased 2.3 times within two months after dredging. However, the low environmental risk (%F1 = 1–10) calculated using risk assessment codes (RAC) indicates a potential risk due to metals entering the water column and bioaccumulating in organisms. These findings provide insights into the dynamics of metals and the impact of dredging activities on sediments in the Colombian Caribbean coast affected by various anthropogenic activities. The research underscores the importance of integrating sustainable practices in mining and agriculture to protect the ecological integrity of these riverine systems.

Risk assessment of arsenic exposure to occupational disease artisanal and small-scale gold mining sites, Bombana Area, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia

Abstract Anthropogenic activities can lead to heavy metal accumulation in the body, causing heavy metal poisoning and occupational diseases. This study investigated the impact of Arsenic exposure on artisanal gold miners in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. The study focused on miners at two Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining sites in Bombana area. The study sample comprises 63 individuals, with 54 individuals representing miners from the Rarowatu and North Rarowatu regions constituting the exposed group and 9 individuals representing non-miners from the Rumbia region forming the control group. Medical examinations and questionnaires were used to identify symptoms of occupational diseases. The As concentrations in human hair samples revealed that miners with over ten years of experience had significantly higher As concentrations (2.67 μg/g) than those exposed to less than ten years of durations (1.26 μg/g). The As concentration in the exposed group (1.61 μg/g) exceeds the World Health Organization guidelines (1 μg/g) and is higher than that of the control group (0.87 μg/g), although not statistically significant (p&lt;0.05). Additionally, there were no significant differences in As concentrations between sick and healthy workers with various symptoms (neurological, respiratory, musculoskeletal, degenerative, and others) (p-values: 0.08, 0.32, 0.69, 0.36, and 0.67, respectively). Long-term Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining miners had higher As exposure, but this study found no clear association between As concentrations and specific occupational diseases.

Characterization and Reprocessing of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mine Tailings

Characterization and Reprocessing of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mine Tailings

Determination and contamination status of mercury and other heavy metals in artisanal and small-scale gold mining at Banyumas region, Central Java, Indonesia, using ICP-OES

ABSTRACT The determination of mercury and other heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb) has been carried out as toxic metals for the human body. Sample preparation was carried out by the microwave digested assist. The determination of heavy metals was carried out using the ICP-OES. The validation parameters used were linearity, Limit of Detection (LoD), Limit of Quantitation (LoQ), precision, and accuracy. Mercury, Arsen, Cadmium, Chromium, Nickel, and Lead average content in sediment gold ore processing waste was 1617.64, 5525.09, 20.24, 484.96, 259.67, and 1210.27 μg/kg, respectively. Linearity used a standard solution of 10–1000 μg/kg, and it produced a regression equation with r2 > 0.9992. The Limit of Detection (LoD) and the Limit of Quantitation (LoQ) was below 1.56 μg/kg and 6.27 μg/kg, respectively. The precision was calculated by the repeatability method, with a result of %RSD below 2.30%. Accuracy was obtained by recovering a spiked standard. The recovery value was found to be between 83% and 118%. Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo), Metal Pollution Index (MPI), Degree of Contamination (Cdeg), and Potential Ecological Risk Index (PERI) in this study was −8.62–1.43, 0.02–5.33, 8.80, and 168.59, respectively. The waste processing site at Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining is generally contaminated by mercury and other heavy metals. All the validation parameters of the method are in the acceptability range, so the method can be used as a routine method for determining mercury and other heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb) levels in gold ore processing waste.

Evaluation of Mercury Exposure in Two Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities in Peru

Evaluation of Mercury Exposure in Two Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities in Peru

Eco Mining Project: Raising awareness and practicing clean technologies in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities in Peru

Eco Mining Project: Raising awareness and practicing clean technologies in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities in Peru

Mercury in river samples with artisanal and small-scale gold mining influence: The case of the upper Madeira River Basin (Brazil/Bolivia)

The issue of mercury (Hg) is becoming a growing concern in the Amazon basin. The Madeira River is known for intense artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM), and Hg poses a significant issue for public health and ecosystems. In this study, we analyzed Hg riverine concentrations in water samples, suspended particulate matter (SPM) and sediments in the Upper Madeira River Basin. We also examined mineralogical and elemental compositions of the solid phase to enhance our understanding of Hg behavior in the environment. Dissolved Hg was not detected in water, and Hg concentrations in solids remained in the same order of magnitude across different rivers, despite variations in gold mining intensities along their courses. Generally, Hg concentrations were higher in compartments with a greater proportion of fine sediments (clay and silt), with average concentrations of 91.4 ± 13.0, 41.6 ± 11.0, and 22.2 ± 1.6 ng g−1 for SPM (n = 14), riverbank (n = 12), and riverbed (n = 4) sediments, respectively. Multivariate analysis shows Hg chemical associations related to clay minerals and organic matter (OM) for the riverbank and SPM compartments. However, in SPM, OM had a greater influence on Hg distribution. Conversely, one riverbed sample highlights with a high Hg concentration (547.78 ng g−1), large content of heavy minerals, and a distinct geochemical signature. This sample was collected in a river section upstream of Beni River's rapids where the river's hydrodynamics can induce the high concentration of heavy minerals in this riverbed sediment. This unexpectedly high Hg concentration encountered in sediment rich in heavy minerals is likely related to contamination by Hg-rich mine tailing discarded into the river. Overall, this study discusses the issue of Hg mobility in rivers suggesting its dispersion, i) associated with fine fraction rich in clay and OM, and ii) associated with heavy minerals.

Isolation and Bioassay of N-fixing Bacteria from Mercury-Contaminated Tailing and Soil of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining

This study aims to isolate Nitrogen-fixing bacteria from tailing and heavy metal (HM) polluted soils and examine their effectiveness as a plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) to increase foxtail millet plant growth. We analyzed artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sites in Pongkor Village, West Java, Indonesia, and identified nine areas with significant contamination of Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), and Arsenic (As). We isolated sixteen strains of nitrogen-fixing bacteria different carbon sources. We identified three strains (3.2.h, 4.2.b, and 9.2.a) that the most robust nitrogenase activity and indole acetic acid (IAA) production. They were identified based on their molecular characteristics (16S rRNA) as Ralstonia pickettii strain LMQOTU12, Azotobacter chroococcum subsp. isscasi strain P205, and Azotobacter chroococcum subsp. isscasi strain P205. The three isolates were inoculated to foxtail millet plant grown under Andosol slightly acidic (pH 5.8), moderate nitrogen content (0.26%). The three strains isolates demonstrated significant enhancement to foxtail millet plants’ growth. Improvements (compared to control) in shoot dry weight: 8% (3.2.h), 32% (4.2.b), 88% (9.2.a); longest root length: 88.71% (3.2.h), 108.90% (4.2.b), 140.16%; root dry weight: 350% (3.2.h), 450% (4.2.b), 250% (9.2.a); and root-shoot ratio 312% (3.2.h), 312% (4.2.b), 75% (9.2.a). This study demonstrates that the three strains are potential PGPRs for increasing plant growth of foxtail millet.

Case Report: Multidisciplinary management of severe blast-related craniofacial and ocular injuries at artisanal gold mining sites in Niger: An unusual case report and comprehensive literature review

Blast-related craniofacial and ocular injuries have traditionally been associated with battlefields. In civilian populations, these injuries were infrequent, primarily arising from accidental explosions or terrorism incidents. Explosions can inflict severe damage to the neurological, ocular, and auditory systems through blast waves, high-velocity foreign bodies, and thermal radiation. The pathophysiology of blast-related craniofacial injuries is specific and complex, with severe cases often involving both penetrating and blunt trauma, leading to high mortality and morbidity rates. These injuries necessitate multidisciplinary management and can be defined as intracranial polytrauma. Recently, Niger has seen a surge in blast injuries, predominantly due to the increase in clandestine artisanal gold mining. Managing these injuries in resource-limited settings poses significant challenge. Comprehensive national data on these injuries are sparse due to high pre-hospital mortality rates and their infrequent occurrence, resulting in limited experience among our local physicians in their management. We present a rare case involving an artisanal gold miner with a history of smoking and previous concussions from explosion exposures. The patient was transferred to our hospital following severe craniofacial and ocular injuries caused by an accidental dynamite explosion at a mining site. On admission, the patient presented altered consciousness, agitation, unstable vital signs, multiple craniofacial wounds, including a large frontal wound with brain substance extrusion, diffuse facial burns, left globe rupture, and rhinorrhagia. After resuscitation and stabilization, brain imaging revealed multiple complex craniofacial fractures with foreign bodies. The patient underwent multidisciplinary surgical management. However, the postoperative course was complicated by post-concussive syndrome, and infection of the surgical wounds, necessitating surgical revision. Following the second surgery, the postoperative course was uneventful, although the patient experienced reduced visual acuity. This case highlights the management challenges in Niger and underscores the urgent need for clinical studies and training for gold miners to enhance safety practices in their activities.

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining governance and cross-sectoral policy coherence in Ghana

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining governance and cross-sectoral policy coherence in Ghana

Mercury Contamination from Artisanal Small-scale Gold Mining Activities in Simpenan District, Sukabumi Regency, West Java, Indonesia

Mercury is still used in the amalgamation process in small-scale gold processing. This study aims to evaluate the mercury contamination of various environmental media in the artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) area in the Simpenan District, Sukabumi Regency. The ecological media examined in this study included groundwater, river water, soil, sediment, biota, and plants. The threshold number was determined using APHA 3125 and Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 7387:2009. Meanwhile, the mercury concentration in the ambient air was measured directly using a mercury analyser. Mercury concentrations in the water, soil, sediment, biota, and plant matrices were calculated using a calibration curve. The study found that the levels of mercury in groundwater, river water, and sediment were all below the applicable quality standards of &lt;0.0001, &lt;0.0001 and 0.001 mg/L, respectively. However, the levels of mercury in soil and plants were 27.28 and 0.52 mg/kg, respectively. Additionally, the levels of mercury in four types of fish found in a river adjacent to the ASGM location, namely beunteur (0.33 mg/kg), snakehead (0.05 mg/kg), catfish (0.26 mg/kg) and eel (0.20 mg/kg), exceeded the specified quality standards. In conclusion, mercury contamination is present in the soil, plants, and aquatic biota (fish) in the ASGM area in the Simpenan District, Sukabumi Regency.

Optimization of direct smelting for mercury-free gold recovery in artisanal and small-scale gold mining

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) faces challenges in accessing capital, technology, and responsible practices, hindering sustainable operations and contributing to environmental and health impacts from mercury use. This study evaluated optimizing direct smelting of gold concentrates as an alternative to mercury amalgamation for efficient and responsible production. 50 kg of ore from Nholi mine was concentrated using a Knelson concentrator and analyzed (XRF, fire assay with AAS, XRD). Response surface methodology with a face-centered composite design investigated smelting temperature (1100–1400 °C), duration (30–90 min), and concentrates-to-flux ratio (1:1–3:1) effects. The impact of sulfide concentration (pyrite varied 6.7–48%) on gold recovery was explored. Low-sulfide concentrates associated with pyrite and sphalerite yielded best recovery (&gt;80%) at 1250 °C for 90 min with 2:1 concentrates-to-flux ratio. Direct smelting with ≤6.7% sulfide enabled over 87% gold recovery, facilitating responsible ASGM production.

Comprehensive assessment of heavy metal pollution of agricultural soils impacted by the Kalsaka abandoned gold mine and artisanal gold mining in northern Burkina Faso.

In this study, the environmental quality of agricultural soils around the Kalsaka abandoned gold mine was evaluated. A total of 117 samples including industrial mine wastes, topsoil, and control soil were collected in and around the mine, and their heavy metal concentrations were determined using ICP-MS after aqua regia digestion. Except for Zn, the average concentrations of the metals were higher in mine wastes and the agricultural soils than their average upper continental crust (UCC) counterpart, whereas those of Ag, As, and Hg exceeded the UCC in the control soils. The control soils had the lowest contaminations and the lowest pollution levels for all metals except for Hg. Based on the average concentrations and coefficients of variation, it can be concluded that Cr, Ni, and Zn abundance in the agricultural soils was controlled by natural factors, whereas that of Ag, As, Hg, Co, Cu, and Mn was mainly associated with mining. The absence of Hg in industrial mine wastes and its high contents in agricultural and control soils reflected the artisanal gold mining source of this metal. Thus, single and integrated pollution indices showed that ecological risk and toxicity are much higher when Hg is included in the index calculation, suggesting cumulative effects of industrial and artisanal gold mining on the agricultural soil quality. The results also showed that Hg and As are the pollutants of major concern in the Kalsaka abandoned gold mine. Because of its proximity to human settlements, the Kalsaka abandoned gold mine necessitates an immediate rehabilitation.

Modelling the anthropogenic Hg pollution fingerprint on the marine fishery production worldwide: A preliminary exposure assessment for people living in countries having different income levels

Mercury is a toxic pollutant that poses risks for the human population, mainly by eating contaminated fish. Mercury is released into the atmosphere from a variety of anthropogenic activities, with levels of emissions and under policy controls that largely vary across the world, leading thus to different relative contributions to the environmental matrices. Establishing the exact sources of this contaminant in the environment is crucial to optimising the policies aimed at mitigating the exposure risks for specific populations or ecosystems. In this study, we modelled, for the first time, the fingerprint of mercury anthropogenic emissions, jointly released by source-sectors (11) and source-regions (13), on the deposition over (19) FAO fishery zones, and on the FAO official fishery productions worldwide over the 2012–2021 decade. Using mercury anthropogenic emissions for 2012 from EDGAR, East Asia and ”Artisanal and Small scale Gold Mining” result the source-region and the source-sector, respectively, that contribute the most to the mercury deposition over all the FAO fishery zones. The only exception applies for the FAO fishery zone 37, the Mediterranean Sea, where the ”Industrial Combustion” from the closest Europe is the pair region-sector whose joint contribution is the greatest. When normalised to the overall fishery production worldwide, representing the global fish consumption, the anthropogenic mercury fingerprint showed a similar general pattern, however with notable differences, amplifying the relative contributions of all source-sectors from East Asia and attenuating the relative contributions of the regions in the Southern Hemisphere. This fingerprint further changes when the fish consumption in countries, classified by the World Bank as having different incomes, is considered. These results demonstrate that the same anthropogenic mercury deposited on any fishery zone actually affects in a different way the different population segments worldwide. This study aims to urge the science community as well as the policy makers to use a measure that better represents the mercury hazard for human health. Further, we hope that this study, using nomenclatures that are largely used on final shelf-product, could increase the people’s awareness regarding the products they consume.

Assessing soil contamination by potentially toxic elements in artisanal and small-scale gold mining sites of the Adamawa Region, Cameroon

Gold mining is acknowledged as a principal source of environmental contamination, primarily due to the release of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) through tailings dispersion into adjacent soils. Such contamination leads to land degradation, pollution, biodiversity loss and soil contamination, and subsequently impacts the food chain, human health and soil ecosystems. This study evaluates the extent of PTE contamination in soils at artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sites within the Meiganga area of the Adamawa-Yade Domain, Cameroon. ASGM extraction processes from quartz veins in this area involve the removal of topsoil to access the ore. Comparative analysis of soil samples from three profiles within the mining zone were conducted to determine contamination levels using pollution indices: enrichment factor, geoaccumulation index, contamination factor and pollution load index. Results indicate higher concentrations of PTEs in soils from the mining area compared to the control profile, with notable contamination in the bottom slope profiles and B horizons, reflecting considerable metal accumulation. The contamination levels of PTEs substantially exceed background levels in the upper continental crust. The study attributes the elevated concentrations of PTEs not only to local mineralization but also to anthropic activities, particularly ASGM, which contributes to their enrichment, distribution and mobility. This pronounced contamination necessitates immediate intervention, advocating for pollution-control measures to address potential ecosystem and human health risks. It highlights the environmental toll of ASGM and underscores the imperative for sustainable mining practices and effective soil remediation techniques, including phytoremediation and soil replacement, to alleviate the adverse effects.

Health and environmental risk assessment of mercury in outdoor and indoor dust in artisanal and small-scale gold mining area in Amansie-west district in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.

Mercury (Hg) pollution around artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) areas has been of much concern. Many studies have reported elevated Hg concentrations in environmental media, but studies on dust relating to inhalation exposure of Hg around ASGM area are limited. In this study, we investigated Hg in indoor and outdoor dust to reveal environmental and human health risk around ASGM in Amansie West district, Ghana. Indoor and outdoor dust samples were collected from Manso Abore and Manso Nkwanta in Ashanti Region. Concentration of Hg in the samples were analyzed using a direct Hg analyzer. The mean and median value of Hg concentration in the indoor dust (n = 31) were 2.2 ± 3.6mg/kg and 0.72mg/kg respectively while that of the outdoor dust (n = 60) were 0.19 ± 0.48mg/kg and 0.042mg/kg, respectively. The mean and median Hg concentration in indoor dust were about 11 and 17 times higher respectively than that in the outdoor dust. The Hg concentration in the indoor dust was statistically significantly higher than that of the non-miner in Manso Abore (p < 0.05) but was not significant in Manso Nkwanta, probably due to higher mining activity. The geo-accumulation index of the outdoor dust ranged from unpolluted to extremely polluted while that of the indoor dust ranged from moderately polluted to extremely polluted. Health risk assessments suggested that there was no potential non-carcinogenic health effect for Hg exposure relating to the dust to residents living in rooms of miners and non-miners.

An Investigation of the Carbon Emissions and Climate Change Awareness from the Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM) sector in Guyana: The Case of Mahdia

Mineral extractive industries are becoming increasingly relevant in climate change science and policy. Guyana’s economic policy, the Low Carbon Development Strategy, seeks to align sectors of the economy along a low carbon emission trajectory. Although the artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sector is economically important, it is a known emissions-intensive sector that contributes to deforestation and direct operational emissions. This study sought to increase understanding of direct operational emissions by investigating carbon emissions associated with fuel combustion in ASGM. Further, the study investigated miners’ awareness of carbon emissions and willingness to reduce emissions; thus providing context for policymakers to advance measures aimed at reducing carbon emissions in the ASGM sector. The research methods used were qualitative document analysis, questionnaire-survey, and interviews. It was found that the average carbon dioxide emission per volume of earth moved from a sample of ASGM operations in Mahdia per quarter was 4.69 x 10-6 MtCO2e/m3. Miners were generally unaware of their carbon footprint and its link to mining, climate change, and the Low Carbon Development Strategy. This knowledge gap was accompanied by negative attitudes. 79% of miners indicated there was no need to reduce their carbon footprint, and 85% of miners were unwilling to change their usual practices. Recommendations to advance and integrate the sector within the Low Carbon Development Strategy framework were explored within the themes of: regulation and management; fiscal measures; technology; and education and awareness.