Artificial Hierarchy Research Articles

Multitask methods for predicting molecular properties from heterogeneous data.

Data generation remains a bottleneck in training surrogate models to predict molecular properties. We demonstrate that multitask Gaussian process regression overcomes this limitation by leveraging both expensive and cheap data sources. In particular, we consider training sets constructed from coupled-cluster (CC) and density functional theory (DFT) data. We report that multitask surrogates can predict at CC-level accuracy with a reduction in data generation cost by over an order of magnitude. Of note, our approach allows the training set to include DFT data generated by a heterogeneous mix of exchange-correlation functionals without imposing any artificial hierarchy on functional accuracy. More generally, the multitask framework can accommodate a wider range of training set structures-including the full disparity between the different levels of fidelity-than existing kernel approaches based on Δ-learning although we show that the accuracy of the two approaches can be similar. Consequently, multitask regression can be a tool for reducing data generation costs even further by opportunistically exploiting existing data sources.

Milton and the Republican Politics of Paradise Lost

Milton was both a great poet and in his own time a well-known political writer. Reading Paradise Lost in the light of his republican political writings, however, presents a serious problem because it is Satan and his confederates who speak and act like republicans in that epic poem, as would have been obvious to his contemporary readers. Rather than try to explain this problem away as others have done, this paper argues that Paradise Lost advances a powerful republican argument continuous with Milton’s earlier political views. Specifically, Paradise Lost shows that monarchy and other artificial hierarchies are evil because they contradict the natural and equal right to freedom of all human beings.

The struggle for authority and legitimacy: Lifestyle and political journalists’ discursive boundary work

Scholarship has pointed to an artificial hierarchy between political and lifestyle journalism that is rooted in norms and values stemming from Western-liberal thought. Within this distinction, lifestyle journalism has been subordinated as occupying a marginal or peripheral position in the field. Yet, how journalists perceive this distinction has rarely been studied empirically. This study draws on concepts of ‘boundary work’ and ‘othering’ to examine how political and lifestyle journalists discursively reinforce and contest boundaries and hierarchies. Through semi-structured interviews with 22 lifestyle and 26 political journalists and editors in South Africa, we show that political and lifestyle journalists engaged in both intra-field (self-)expansion, and (self-)expulsion and (self-)othering, by evoking several boundary markers. Boundaries were reinforced through gendered discourses, autonomy ideals, claims to specialization and accessibility in news beats and presentation, beliefs about political journalism’s preservation of humanity, and greater risks to safety of political journalists. Boundaries were challenged by politicizing lifestyle journalism and popularizing political journalism, providing a counter-narrative to political journalism’s negativity, and treating lifestyle journalism as economically beneficial.

The Civilizing Mission Persists

AbstractU.S. government leaders have long considered Latin America their proverbial backyard and have recurrently intervened in the region. In earlier periods of U.S. imperialism, U.S. government leaders justified such intervention with reference to allegedly scientific racial hierarchies, which placed White, Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs) at the top of this artificial hierarchy. In more recent episodes of U.S. imperialism leading into the twenty-first century, however, U.S. leaders have publicly used the language of democracy and human rights to justify intervention. In the instance of contemporary Venezuela, while U.S leaders indeed use the language of human rights and democracy, they also draw on racist tropes of Latin Americans to justify their intervention. Through interviews with U.S. foreign policymakers and analysis of U.S. government documents, I find that U.S. leaders depict former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez as an irrational, uncivilized, and beastly leader, who manipulates ideas of racial inequality to maintain power. In addition, U.S. leaders understand him as manipulating an uncritical mass of Venezuelans who cannot think for themselves. U.S. leaders believe it thus their duty to intervene in order to promote democracy and show Venezuelans their true political-economic interests. I connect these dynamics with a history of U.S. intervention into the region and a history of racist and imperial thinking that continues to shape the logic of U.S. foreign policymaking into the present.

The Contribution of Patriarchy to the Concept of Manhood in African Societies: A Marxist Reading of Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty

This paper explores the concept of patriarchy as an undesirable ideology that promotes the oppression of the weak and vulnerable in society by the strong and powerful in Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty. It is widely held that patriarchy promotes the domination of men over women and promotes an artificial hierarchy of class in which women become subordinates to their male gender. Yet, patriarchy does not only make subjugates of women. Depending on the dictates and expectations of a culture, men, like women, can equally be made subjugates of patriarchy if they are deemed unworthy of the title of a man. This usually happens when they do not measure up to the standard of societal expectations, particularly, within African cultural setting. Using the theory of Marxism, this paper argues that patriarchy not only succeeds in creating a society that operates on classism in which women are the subordinates; men too become victims. In addition, patriarchy inflicts deep psychological trauma on men and women who suffer its tenets. The conclusion is that men and women collectively fight patriarchy in order to achieve an egalitarian society where synergy can be harnessed for the betterment of all.

The Influence of Different Knowledge-Driven Methods on Landslide Susceptibility Mapping: A Case Study in the Changbai Mountain Area, Northeast China.

Landslides are one of the most frequent geomorphic hazards, and they often result in the loss of property and human life in the Changbai Mountain area (CMA), Northeast China. The objective of this study was to produce and compare landslide susceptibility maps for the CMA using an information content model (ICM) with three knowledge-driven methods (the artificial hierarchy process with the ICM (AHP-ICM), the entropy weight method with the ICM (EWM-ICM), and the rough set with the ICM (RS-ICM)) and to explore the influence of different knowledge-driven methods for a series of parameters on the accuracy of landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM). In this research, the landslide inventory data (145 landslides) were randomly divided into a training dataset: 70% (81 landslides) were used for training the models and 30% (35 landslides) were used for validation. In addition, 13 layers of landslide conditioning factors, namely, altitude, slope gradient, slope aspect, lithology, distance to faults, distance to roads, distance to rivers, annual precipitation, land type, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), topographic wetness index (TWI), plan curvature, and profile curvature, were taken as independent, causal predictors. Landslide susceptibility maps were developed using the ICM, RS-ICM, AHP-ICM, and EWM-ICM, in which weights were assigned to every conditioning factor. The resultant susceptibility was validated using the area under the ROC curve (AUC) method. The success accuracies of the landslide susceptibility maps produced by the ICM, RS-ICM, AHP-ICM, and EWM-ICM methods were 0.931, 0.939, 0.912, and 0.883, respectively, with prediction accuracy rates of 0.926, 0.927, 0.917, and 0.878 for the ICM, RS-ICM, AHP-ICM, and EWM-ICM, respectively. Hence, it can be concluded that the four models used in this study gave close results, with the RS-ICM exhibiting the best performance in landslide susceptibility mapping.

A method to minimise the energy consumption of an industrial robot

This paper presents an efficient methodology for minimising the energy or power consumption of industrial robot arm. A popular industrial robot is taken as an example to do the analysis, the dimensions of this robot are used to find the joint angles through inverse kinematics, these are used to form energy function. The energy function is dependent on joint angles of the arm, which are derived from the inverse kinematics, and control attributes like friction between joints, movement, settling time and forces acting on the joints. Optimising the energy function will give a set of joint angles which consume minimal energy to perform the required task and also help to predict which optimisation technique (genetic algorithm, artificial neural networks and analytical hierarchy process) is suitable or gives better results for the desired need. In this work the energy function value is reduced by 11% from the original base value.

Vibrational Epistemology in the Nineteenth-Century American Soundscape: Music and Noise in Thoreau's Walden

Vibrational Epistemology in the Nineteenth-Century American Soundscape:Music and Noise in Thoreau's Walden Christina Katopodis (bio) Henry David Thoreau was an illimitable and precise surveyor of sounds. Recording nonhuman sounds in Walden (1854), Thoreau listens promiscuously: to soliloquizing squirrels, belching bullfrogs, ringing church bells, and hissing steam engines. He translates close listening into writing sonic phenomena in all their nuance: trains heard from a distance and up close, owls heard willingly and unwillingly at night, echoes through thick forest trees, lovely melodies and violent cacophonies. While scholars have previously analyzed sound in Thoreau's writing, the relatively new field of sound studies offers systematic methods for analyzing the author's listening theory and practice embedded in his musical lexicon. He treated music as natural to all beings, eschewing the artificial hierarchies humans imposed on nature, particularly between human and nonhuman. Listening, for him, is a learning mode, what I call a vibrational epistemology: a situated listener's embodied knowledge of the heard sound connects her to its source and to the particular environment shaping its direction and texture. Sound, in other words, does not exist in a vacuum. Furthermore, in Walden, sensing sonic vibration is as much about embodied feeling (sound's material pressure on the skin, the ear's tympanic membrane, the hairs [End Page 382] in the cochlea, and the skull) as it is about affects (emotions, feelings). Adding my own approach to sound studies based in new materialism, I argue that embodiment, relationality, agency, and situatedness are key to Thoreau's listening theory as well as to reading and hearing Walden. I show that the text offers an open-ended survey of sounds, a comprehensive yet never totalizing account. Walden's soundscape breathes, rustles, and screeches in natural rhythms that shift with the weather, migration patterns, and mating seasons; thus, Thoreau could not fully contain, finish, or visually map Walden's vibrating soundscape. I begin with sound and the body, how sound waves penetrate the individual and bring one into relation with other pulsing beings. Karen Barad and Jane Bennett help demonstrate the ways in which sonic vibrations unsettle boundaries and charge beings in agentic, reciprocal exchange.1 Next, I explore how different musical formulations characterize these exchanges by examining two key binaries Thoreau uses without hierarchical or moral judgments: harmony and discord, and music and noise. Combining musicological and ecocritical methods to analyze these four musical elements in Walden illuminates the power dynamics between agentic beings competing for sonic territory in a crescendoing soundscape. Finally, I center environmentalist politics on situated listening, reading sonic violence as a disruptive, climate-changing force, and adopting Thoreau's figure of the echo to imagine what multidirectional listening beyond the individual sounds like. Using sound felt within the individual as impetus to turn outward—especially toward relations with nonhumans—reorients the body as "part and particle" of nature, to use Ralph Waldo Emerson's phrasing from Nature (1836). Situated listening recovers nature's particularities and gives us cause, not for more idealization or ideation of nature, but for self-examination—of our (borrowing from Barad's formulation) "response-ability" in the ontoepistemology of sonic relations.2 [End Page 383] Studying the aural in Walden uncovers the agency Thoreau ascribes to nonhuman sound producers and the responsibility he accepts as a situated listener. Writing before the existence of sound recording technology, he bears witness not just to the vaunted natural sounds often associated with transcendentalism but also to diverse industrial tones and improvised music, such as his hoe tinkling against stones in his bean field.3 Walden is, by the author's own declaration, an intentional exercise in listening: he sets out at the very start to convey what he himself hears rather than what he has "heard of" through other ears (W, 3). He transcribes sounds from the train's steady beat—par-tridge, par-tridge—to the martins' twittering and chickadees' day day day. Each tap and chirp activates the hinged relations between vibrating beings. Sharon Cameron comments on Thoreau's concern in Walden with the "discovery of sound," and I take her intuitive observation a step further: analyzing Walden's aural complexities reveals Thoreau's deliberateness...

Self-assembly of macromolecules in a long and narrow tube

Many nature materials have hierarchical structure, and its last cascade is always on a molecule scale, e. g., double-stranded DNA, making the hierarchy effective with minimal building blocks. Now artificial hierarchy can begin with a nanoscale level to embody the material with remarkable and fascinating properties which can be never achieved using non-hierarchical structure. A strong desire to fabricate some biomimicking hierarchies from a molecule level has been stimulating scientists. Herein we show that molecular structure can be easily controlled by a long and narrow tube, and self-assembly of macromolecules can be achieved to improve its crystallinity with plenty of excellent properties. We anticipate this paper to be a starting point for more sophisticated fabrication of fibers with self-assembly of macromolecules.

Socially Constructed Hierarchies of Impairments: The Case of Australian and Irish Workers' Access to Compensation for Injuries.

Socially constructed hierarchies of impairment complicate the general disadvantage experienced by workers with disabilities. Workers with a range of abilities categorized as a "disability" are likely to experience less favourable treatment at work and have their rights to work discounted by laws and institutions, as compared to workers without disabilities. Value judgments in workplace culture and local law mean that the extent of disadvantage experienced by workers with disabilities additionally will depend upon the type of impairment they have. Rather than focusing upon the extent and severity of the impairment and how society turns an impairment into a recognized disability, this article aims to critically analyse the social hierarchy of physical versus mental impairment. Using legal doctrinal research methods, this paper analysis how Australian and Irish workers' compensation and negligence laws regard workers with mental injuries and impairments as less deserving of compensation and protection than like workers who have physical and sensory injuries or impairments. This research finds that workers who acquire and manifest mental injuries and impairments at work are less able to obtain compensation and protection than workers who have developed physical and sensory injuries of equal or lesser severity. Organizational cultures and governmental laws and policies that treat workers less favourably because they have mental injuries and impairments perpetuates unfair and artificial hierarchies of disability attributes. We conclude that these "sanist" attitudes undermine equal access to compensation for workplace injury as prohibited by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

Relationships Between Tonal Stability and Metrical Accent in Monophonic Contexts

Recent corpus analyses have provided evidence for interactions between tonal and metric hierarchies by illustrating that tonally stable pitches occur disproportionately often on strong metrical positions while tonally unstable pitches occur more frequently on weaker metrical positions. This study begins to investigate whether this observed property is salient to listeners' identification of metrical accents: by presenting participants with tonally-determined but metrically ambiguous beat patterns, we ask how tonal hierarchies might influence listeners' interpretation of these metrical-accent patterns (as measured via a tapping task). In Experiment 1, participants heard patterns alternating tonally stable and unstable pitches, and it was found that tonal stability did not affect metric interpretations. In Experiments 2 and 3, listeners heard an atonal artificial hierarchy prefaced by an exposure session using music generated by this artificial hierarchy; exposure did not influence the subsequent tapping task. Flipping the paradigm, in Experiment 4, participants heard a metrically defined but tonally-ambiguous melody, and selected the most appropriate chord. The metrical context affected participants' harmonization choices. Although a tendency to align strong beats with chord tones accounted for some of the data, further analysis shows that changing the metrical context influenced chord choices, providing evidence for a joint tonal-metric hierarchy.

Hierarchical mutual information for the comparison of hierarchical community structures in complex networks.

The quest for a quantitative characterization of community and modular structure of complex networks produced a variety of methods and algorithms to classify different networks. However, it is not clear if such methods provide consistent, robust, and meaningful results when considering hierarchies as a whole. Part of the problem is the lack of a similarity measure for the comparison of hierarchical community structures. In this work we give a contribution by introducing the hierarchical mutual information, which is a generalization of the traditional mutual information and makes it possible to compare hierarchical partitions and hierarchical community structures. The normalized version of the hierarchical mutual information should behave analogously to the traditional normalized mutual information. Here the correct behavior of the hierarchical mutual information is corroborated on an extensive battery of numerical experiments. The experiments are performed on artificial hierarchies and on the hierarchical community structure of artificial and empirical networks. Furthermore, the experiments illustrate some of the practical applications of the hierarchical mutual information, namely the comparison of different community detection methods and the study of the consistency, robustness, and temporal evolution of the hierarchical modular structure of networks.

Landslide susceptibility modelling applying user-defined weighting and data-driven statistical techniques in Cox’s Bazar Municipality, Bangladesh

Landslides are common geophysical hazards in the highly urbanized hilly areas of Cox’s Bazar Municipality, Bangladesh. Every year, during the monsoon, landslides cause human casualties, property damage, and economic losses. Indiscriminate hill cutting, developing settlements in dangerous hill slopes, and torrential rainfall in short period of time are responsible for triggering landslide disasters. The aim of this paper is to produce landslide susceptibility maps (LSM) to help reduce the risks of landslides. Geographic information system and remote sensing-based techniques were used for LSM considering 12 relevant factor maps (i.e. slope, land cover, NDVI, geology, geomorphology, soil moisture, rainfall pattern, distance from road, drain, stream, structure, and faults–lineaments). For the modelling purpose, four techniques were implemented—artificial hierarchy process (AHP), weighted linear combination (WLC), logistic regression (LR), and multiple logistic regression (MLR). A landslide inventory map with 74 historical landslide locations was prepared by field surveying. The modelling results are validated using the area under the relative operating characteristics curves (AUC). AUC values of AHP, WLC, LR, and MLR methods are calculated as 88, 85.90, 74.90, and 90.40 %, respectively.

Landslide susceptibility mapping using multi-criteria evaluation techniques in Chittagong Metropolitan Area, Bangladesh

Landslides are a common hazard in the highly urbanized hilly areas in Chittagong Metropolitan Area (CMA), Bangladesh. The main cause of the landslides is torrential rain in short period of time. This area experiences several landslides each year, resulting in casualties, property damage, and economic loss. Therefore, the primary objective of this research is to produce the Landslide Susceptibility Maps for CMA so that appropriate landslide disaster risk reduction strategies can be developed. In this research, three different Geographic Information System-based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis methods—the Artificial Hierarchy Process (AHP), Weighted Linear Combination (WLC), and Ordered Weighted Average (OWA)—were applied to scientifically assess the landslide susceptible areas in CMA. Nine different thematic layers or landslide causative factors were considered. Then, seven different landslide susceptible scenarios were generated based on the three weighted overlay techniques. Later, the performances of the methods were validated using the area under the relative operating characteristic curves. The accuracies of the landslide susceptibility maps produced by the AHP, WLC_1, WLC_2, WLC_3, OWA_1, OWA_2, and OWA_3 methods were found as 89.80, 83.90, 91.10, 88.50, 90.40, 95.10, and 87.10 %, respectively. The verification results showed satisfactory agreement between the susceptibility maps produced and the existing data on the 20 historical landslide locations.

The Yin and Yang of International Nurses Week

For many years I was not a proponent of Nurses Day in any form or format. I always had the impression that it was to sooth the semisavage breast (Congreve, 1797) of the overworked, underappreciated, poorly recognized “little ladies of healthcare.” It seemed contrived by the greeting card companies and was a quick and easy way for hospitals and other health care agencies to inexpensively recognize the nursing masses and avoid addressing the real issues at hand—the artificial hierarchy of health care, the servitude wages, the audacious behaviors of other providers, and the deficient autonomyof our profession. In addition, I have never been one to be overwhelmed by a wilting carnation to wear on my name pin, nor a free ice cream in the hospital cafeteria. In other words, I was not a fan of thisminimal attempt towhitewash the vagaries of health care. Then, of course I had noticed that there were not any Lawyers Day, or Doctors Day, nor any Engineers Day, and others. All are recognized as highly regarded professions, so why did we need a Nurses Day? Then, an epiphany! The challenge could become an opportunity. International Nurses Day/Week could be seen as an occasion to interconnect our challenges and our strengths—our caring and our courage and our influence and autonomy. The Chinese philosophy of yin and yang is one of wholism, interconnectedness, and the forming of a dynamic and complimentary structure (Wikipedia, 2014); why could not Nurses Day/Week be similarly viewed? Why not use this annual event to do what we truly do best—helping others instead of allowing the focus to be on some token selfrecognition? Years ago the Congress noted that nursing was the sleeping giant of health care; if we ever came together on an issue, we had the potential to change the course of history

The Past, Present, and Future of the American Left

The Past, Present, and Future of the American Left

A Hunger Strike - The Ecology of a Protest: The Case of Bahraini Activist Abdulhad al-Khawaja

This article uses the case of a Bahraini activist to explore the twin interrelated ecologies of a hunger strike. The first ecology is the ethical framing of a prison hunger strike as a corporeal-environmental act of (self) destruction intended to achieve political ends. The second ecology is the operation of global media where international inaction inadvertently foregrounds the political struggles that larger events and discourses surrounding Egypt, Libya and Syria overshadow. What connects these two ecologies is the body of the hunger striker, turned into a spectacle and mediated via a politics of affect that invites a global public to empathize and so enter into his suffering. The connection between the two lies in the emaciated body of the hunger striker in this case, Abdulhadi al-Khawaja

Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) rapidly learn to select dominant individuals in videos of artificial social interactions between unfamiliar conspecifics.

Social animals, such as primates, must behave appropriately in complex social situations such as dominance interactions. Learning dominance information through trial and error would be dangerous; therefore, cognitive mechanisms for rapid learning of dominance information by observation would be adaptive. We used a set of digitally edited artificial social interactions to examine whether rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) can learn dominance relationships between unfamiliar conspecifics through observation. Our method allowed random assignment of stimulus monkeys to ranks in an artificial hierarchy, controlling for nonbehavioral cues that could indicate dominance. Subject monkeys watched videos depicting 1 stimulus monkey behaving dominantly toward another and were rewarded for selecting the dominant individual. Monkeys rapidly learned this discrimination across 5 behavior types in Experiment 1 and transferred performance to novel videos of new individuals in Experiment 2. In addition, subjects selected the dominant individual more often than expected by chance in probe videos containing no behavioral dominance information, indicating some retention of the relative dominance status of stimulus monkeys from training. Together, our results suggest that monkeys can learn dominance hierarchies through observation of third-party social interactions.

Blogging Illness: Recovering in Public

Blogging Illness: Recovering in Public

Women in the Holocaust (review)

Book Reviews 147 Women in the Holocaust, edited by Dalia Ofer and Lenore 1. Weitzman. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. 402 pp. $35.00. In recent decades, as research in both Jewish women's studies and in Holocaust studies has proliferated and matured, increasing notice has been taken of the striking scarcity ofwomen~s voices in contemporary discourse about the Shoah. As Sara R. Horowitz, among others, has pointed out, it is not that women survivors have failed to produce diaries, memoirs, journals, novels, or vignettes; in fact, many have recorded their experiences in writing or in oral and videotaped testimony. Nevertheless, women's experiences are rarely presented as "typical" Holocaust stories; scholarly studies cite female accounts less frequently than the testimony of male survivors.! In literary and cinematic visions of the H.olocaust there are few depictions of the specific ways in which the Nazis persecuted women; female characters are usually marginalized in comparison to the male subjects who dominate the narrative. Acknowledgment that women suffered both as Jews and as women, and that women acted independently with heroism and compassion in desperate circumstances, continues to be rare in most ofthe scholarly and artistic representations of the Shoah. Women in the Holocaust, which presents an essential and comprehensive survey of recent work in this still controversial field, demonstrates the valuable insights that can emerge when the research paths ofHolocaust studies and Jewish women's studies intersect. While editors Dalia Ofer and Lenore 1. Weitzman readily acknowledge that gender was subordinate to racism in the Nazi determination to annihilate all Jews, they argue that asking questions about gender, listening to women's stories, and incorporating discussions ofthe different ways in which men and women experienced the Nazi terror expands our knowledge of this epoch in crucial ways. The 21chapters in this volume, which include historical studies, personal accounts, and literary analyses of Holocaust testimonies, are arranged under the following chronological rubrics: "Before the War," "Life in the Ghettos," "Resistance and Rescue," and "Labor Camps and Concentration Camps"; three concluding essays address larger thematic questions having to do with gender and the Holocaust. While a final essay in the collection, by Sara R. Horowitz, considers some works offiction and poetry, the emphasis of the anthology is strongly oriented towards historical analysis and various forms of personal testimonies. There are no studies, for example, of representations ofwomen in Holocaust films or television productions, either fictional or documentary. Ofer and Weitzman do not ignore the controversy studies like theirs has provoked. Critics have argued that differentiation of victims by gender distracts from the Nazis' systematic goal to murder all J~ws. Some have suggested that raising the question of gender is to impose today's concerns on the past, while others wish to avoid any 'Sara R. Horowitz, "Memory and Testimony ofWomen Survivors ofNazi Genocide," in Women ofthe Word: Jewish Women and Jewish Writing, ed. Judith R. Baskin (Detroit, 1994), pp. 258-282. 148 SHOFAR Winter 2001 Vol. 19, No.2 distinctions and invidious comparisons among victims which could deflect attention from the central focus on Nazi policy. In his essay in this volume, Lawrence L. Langer argues that the role ofgendered behavior was severely diminished during the Holocaust period and played little part in survival or degree ofsuffering; he believes that to claim otherwise applies an artificial hierarchy in a darkness where only chaos prevailed. Ofer and Weitzman respond that "Rather than distracting us from the Nazi brutality against all Jews, these questions enhance our understanding ofit by locating it in the specificity of individual experiences." Moreover, they point out that such questions are not anachronistic: at the end of 1941 Emmanuel Ringelblum, the archivist and historian within the Warsaw ghetto, commissioned his colleague Cecilya Slepak to undertake a separate study of women (which survived the war) as part of his effort to preserve as many aspects as possible ofa community in confmement. As Joan Ringelheim reminds us in her essay, both Jewish men and Jewish women experienced umelieved suffering during the Holocaust, but their paths to annihilation were not always the same. She writes that "Jewish women carried the burdens of sexual victimization, pregnancy, abortion, childbirth, killing of newborn babies...