Artificial Incubation Of Eggs Research Articles

Process of increasing the incubation indices of geese eggs.

Among the factors influencing embryonic development results and eggs' hatching is the process of eggs irrigating during hatching p eriod. Irrigating is used only for waterfowl poultr y in artificial incubation of eggs because of copying th e natural incubation. Eggs irrigating is conducted in order to remove heat eliminated by incubating embryos. Eggs hatching technology provides waterfowl eggs irrigating during the incubation period using solutions of KMnO 4 and Na 2CO 2 in various proportions in order to disinfect mineral shell, re move heat and quench the eggs. Researches carried out have proved positive influence of irrigating th e goose eggs with KMnO4 solution 10 g/10 l H 2O of day 10 of incubation for 2 times during 24 hours. F or normal development and receiving maximum hatching results using this method is recommended i n technology of goose eggs incubation.

Factors Related to the Artificial Incubation of Wild Bird Eggs

Attempts to artificially incubate the eggs of wild birds have failed in many respects in duplicating the success of natural incubation. As part of a larger study we had the opportunity to artificially incubate the eggs of 22 species of birds (three domestic and 19 wild species). We report the successes and failures associated with artificial incubation of these eggs. Moisture loss varied widely, not only for Orders of birds but for similar species within an Order. Overall hatching success and success through to 90% of incubation varied for different Orders and for similar species. Humidity and temperature are critical elements in the artificial incubation of wild bird eggs and must be closely monitored throughout incubation to ensure the best possible chance of hatching. Even when these elements are addressed, artificial incubation still cannot duplicate the success of incubation by the parent.

Genetic relationships between water loss and shell deaths in ostrich eggs, assessed as traits of the female

The ostrich industry suffers from a high rate of embryonic mortality during artificial incubation of eggs. Data from 34 285 eggs were used to derive 969 female-year records for evaporative water loss (WL), treated as a trait of the female. Heritability was significant for WL at a level of 0.40–0.41 (both after 21 and 35 days of incubation). WL at 21 and 35 days was negatively correlated on the genetic level with chick weight at hatching (–0.84 and –0.81, respectively). Shell deaths did not exhibit high levels of genetic variation (0.06), but were affected by the permanent environment of the female (0.33). Shell deaths were correlated with WL on a genetic level (–0.34 to –0.41), but the estimated genetic correlations were associated with high standard errors and are, therefore, not very robust. Further research is needed to obtain more accurate genetic relationships between traits influencing incubation.

A Case of Conjoined Cephalopagus Twinning in an Ostrich (Struthio camelus)

Conjoined twinnings have been reported in most domestic animal species and in some avian species. Cases of conjoined twins have not been reported in the ostrich so far. A hybrid Blue neck x African black male ostrich conjoined twinning was born at the end of artificial egg incubation and died spontaneously 24 h after the hatching. It was frozen and sent to the Unit of Veterinary Pathology of the University of Messina for gross examination. The most important gross findings involved the external body and most of the internal organs. On the basis of the duplication, the conjoined twins were classified as a cephalopagus. Radiological features included: development of one head containing a single brain, two spinal cords, deviated vertebral columnae with fusion of the two first cervical vertebrae. In one twin, the synsacrum was absent as well as portions of the vertebral column. Grossly, both twins showed two upper and lower limbs each. The gastro-enteric apparatuses of the twins were not completely developed and fused at different levels. One liver and one heart localized in the centre of the conjoined twins were observed. The authors conclude that the possible causes of the malformation could be related to a genetic factor.

Factors related to shell deaths during artificial incubation of ostrich eggs

The ostrich industry experiences a high rate of embryonic mortalities during artificial incubation of eggs. Embryonic deaths were studied from data recorded on 37,740 fertile eggs incubated artificially during the 1998-2005 breeding seasons. Roughly 10,000 eggs that sustained embryonic mortalities were classified according to the stage and nature of death, i.e. before 21 days of incubation, after 21 days of incubation, deaths after pipping and rotten eggs. Although infection may have played a role in approximately 1300 rotten eggs, no detailed knowledge of the pathogens involved was available. The remainder of deaths could not be related to pathogens and the deaths were thus generally referred to as non-infectious. The overall level of embryonic mortality in all the eggs studied was 28.5 %. Overall embryonic mortality was affected by incubator, with higher levels (57.0 %) found in eggs incubated in an African Incubator and also in eggs that were transferred between incubators during incubation (38.1%). Overall embryonic mortality also increased in eggs produced by older females. Eggs produced in the autumn had the highest level of embryonic mortality at 53.6 %, whereas eggs produced in the winter had a marginally higher level of embryonic mortalities of 29.2 % compared with eggs produced during summer (27.4 %). Eggs produced by South African (SA) Black males crossed to Zimbabwean Blue females had high levels of embryonic losses of 45.7 %. The embryonic mortality of eggs produced by SA Blacks or Zimbabwean Blue breeding birds subjected to pure breeding was similar at approximately 33-34 %, but embryonic mortality was improved in eggs produced by Zimbabwean Blue males crossed to SA Black females (27 %). Embryonic mortality was increased in eggs that were set directly (32.0 %) or subjected to longer than 6 days of storage (43.5 %). Embryonic mortality was affected by year. The results that were obtained will assist in determining non-infectious factors that have a negative effect on hatching success. Steps can thus be taken to eliminate such factors that may compromise hatching success.

Incubation temperatures and sex ratios in Australian brush‐turkey (Alectura lathami) mounds

Abstract Megapodes are exceptional among birds because they use external heat sources for incubating their eggs. In Australian brush‐turkeys (Alectura lathami), this source is the heat produced by microbial decomposition in mounds of leaf litter. A recent laboratory study showed that artificial incubation of eggs at different temperatures affects the sex ratio of brush‐turkey hatchlings. Here, this phenomenon is confirmed for eggs incubated in natural incubation mounds. Eggs from which females hatched were found at significantly higher incubation temperatures in the mounds (mean 33.7°C) than those from which males hatched (mean 32.9°C). Also, sex ratios of chicks from individual mounds were significantly correlated with mean incubation temperatures in those mounds. Furthermore, incubation temperatures differed significantly between incubation mounds during the same month of the year. Within some mounds, incubation temperatures differed up to 9°C between eggs, in others this difference was only up to 1°C. These latter results show that males differ in their ability to maintain stable incubation temperatures. While the effect of incubation temperatures on sex ratio is a novel discovery for any bird, it was previously suggested that incubation temperatures in megapodes also affect embryo mortality and chick survival. These combined effects of incubation temperature, and the limited ability of males to provide optimal temperatures, seem to provide answers to the question why so few birds have adopted this unusual mode of reproduction – a question asked by many behavioural ecologists and evolutionary biologists.

History of biological control of poultry diseases in the USA.

Reflection on the control of poultry diseases in the United States brings to mind the extensive cooperative forces that were brought to bear to promote the growth of the poultry industry, which provides our nation with an inexpensive source of protein and aids in feeding people around the world. That cooperative spirit radiated from the Agricultural Experiment Stations at the land grant colleges, worked in close association with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and it did not exclude the help and expertise of the commercial vaccineproducing laboratories. Poultry rearing became widespread in the United States in the latter part of the 19th century. Increased demand for chicks resulted in the development of artificial incubation of eggs and along with it the dissemination of a disease referred to as bacillary white diarrhea (BWD). The cause of the disease was discovered by Rettger (17) in 1899 and became classified as Salmonella pullorum, hence the name pullorum disease. The poultry men looked to the scientific personnel of the experiment stations to resolve the problem of the high chick mortality. It was discovered that this was an egg-transmitted infection, and the secret of its control was identification of the infected layers and elimination of such layers from the flock. The search for a biological test to identify the carrier birds in a flock was initiated at several experiment stations. The first major biological control for poultry diseases took the form of a tube agglutination test, developed by Jones (14) in 1913 for the detection of carriers of S. pullorum. This test set the stage for future developments.

Induction of spawning and artificial incubation of eggs in the edible snail Pomacea urceus (Muller)

The neotropical freshwater gastropod Pomacea urceus is amphibious, herbivorous and attains a size of 145 mm. The snail fetches a high price of $US 5/kg, and current demand is met by collection from the wild, leading to over-exploitation. This is a potential aquaculture species, but there is the need for hatchery production of juveniles, since collection of seedstock from the wild is difficult. Wild-collected adult P. urceus were placed in 0.4 m 2 concrete troughs filled with soil and water. Mating was induced by a decrease in water level, and after mating, the snails burrowed into the substratum where egg-laying occurred. The recently laid eggs were carefully removed from the females and placed into darkened aquaria where the temperature was maintained at 27±3 °C and the humidity was kept above 80%. After an incubation period of 21 to 34 days, young crawling snails emerged. Mean survivorship was 96%.

Effects of Housing Type and Breeding System on the Reproductive Capacity of the Red-Legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa)

Current methods of intensive breeding of the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) are based on “industrial” laying practices, including removal and artificial incubation of eggs. These procedures can alter the reproductive behavior and physiology of the birds and, therefore, may not be suitable for use in breeding programs designed to increase wild populations. This study aimed to determine the effects of intensive housing and breeding methods on the laying capacity and reproductive behavior of the red-legged partridge. In Experiment 1, 70 pairs from a commercial game farm were randomly allocated into three treatment groups and placed in differing designs of breeding cages: 8 m2 cages with solid sides (n = 30), 4 m2 cages with solid sides (n = 30), and 4 m2 cages with mesh sides (n = 10). The number of eggs laid was recorded each week. In Experiment 2, 30 pairs, placed in 30 closed 8 m2 cages, were used. Fifteen pairs were birds reared under the intensive system used on game farms, and the other 15 pairs were birds adopted by pairs of foster parents when they were less than 48 h old. The total number of eggs laid during the reproductive period was recorded.In Experiment 1, egg production was greater in pairs housed in 8 m2 cages. There were no differences in egg production between birds housed in closed or open 4 m2 cages. In Experiment 2, the rearing method did not affect egg production. In both experiments, regardless of rearing history or cage type, the numbers of eggs laid were considerably higher than published figures for wild red-legged partridges. This fact, together with the absence of incubation by 100% of the females, indicates the considerable physiological and behavioral modifications that red-legged partridges have undergone due to domestication.

A method for testing the effectiveness of artificial incubation of eggs vs. maternal brooding in the freshwater crayfish Cherax destructor (Decapoda: Parastacidae)

Artificial incubation of eggs of Cherax destructor from 2 days post-spawning, using a suspension upweller, achieved survival rates averaging 93%, which was equal to or better than maternal incubation. Determining survival of a particular clutch with maternal incubation is difficult because it is impossible to count the large numbers of eggs while they are attached to the pleopods. A statistical method for estimating the initial numbers of eggs on the pleopods on one side of the mother from counts of eggs stripped off the pleopods on the other side is presented in this paper.

Intensive management of a critically endangered species: the kakapo

Since a review of the management of the critically endangered kakapo ( Strigops habroptilus) in 1994, management of this species has become more intensive. This paper reports on new developments in the supplementary feeding of kakapo, continuous monitoring and protection of nests from predators, translocations of kakapo between islands, and artificial incubation of eggs and hand-raising of chicks. Supplementary feeding probably increases chick survival especially when natural food supplies fail. It may also increase breeding frequency, either by triggering breeding, or raising kakapo above a nutritional threshold. Protection of nests from predators has eliminated rat predation of eggs and chicks, and continuous monitoring and rebuilding of poor nest sites has improved kakapo nesting success. Recent translocations of kakapo between islands have aimed to prevent possibly infertile males from mating, facilitate supplementary feeding, improve the breeding prospects of some birds, test the suitability of a new island for kakapo, and facilitate the eradication of rats. Eggs have been artificially incubated and chicks hand-raised in an attempt to establish a captive population of hand-raised birds, to rescue sickly and unthrifty chicks, and to forestall likely nest failures.

Mortality in near-term ostrich embryos during artificial incubation.

1. The ostrich industry in South Africa (and elsewhere) experiences a high rate of embryo mortality during artificial incubation of eggs. Most of this mortality takes place in the last l0-l4 d of incubation. 2. We carried out post-mortem examinations on 111 embryos that died within this period to assess the causes of this mortality. 3. Malpositioning and severe oedema were the predominant symptoms of dead-in shell embryos with 55% being malpositioned and 41% showing severe oedema. Of these, 22 embryos (24%) showed both symptoms. Malpositioning generally results from incorrect setting of the eggs or inadequate turning and oedema was significantly correlated with the amount of water lost from the eggs which in turn was correlated with egg size. 4. Myopathy, gross lesions of internal organs, haemorrhage, bacterial infections and congenital deformities were found in less than 10% of chicks examined for these symptoms.

Hand‐rearing and breeding the endangered Black stilt Himantopus novoezelandiae: at Twizel

A captive population of the endangered New Zealand Black stilt Himantopus novaezelandiae was established in 1979, by hand‐rearing chicks from eggs brought from the wild. One pair successfully bred between 1982 and 1987 and up to four pairs bred each year from 1987 until 1993. Parent birds were allowed to hatch and rear some eggs, others were fostered by stilts in the wild. Parent‐reared juveniles were released into the wild from an aviary at Twizel from 1987 until 1992. Large‐scale hand‐rearing began in 1992 and 35 of these juveniles were released into the wild in September and October 1993. The artificial incubation of eggs and the hand‐rearing, housing, feeding, pairing, breeding and release of captive black stilts is described.

Effect of initial age variation on production of Florida red tilapia fry under intensive, brackishwater tank culture

. Growth and survival were compared among uniform- and mixed-age groups of Florida red tilapia fry during sex reversal in brackishwater (12ppt) tanks, under commercial-scale hatchery conditions. Three treatment groups of post-yolksac (i.e. free-swimming) stage fry of different age compositions were compared: (1) 100% fry collected at the free-swimming stage (FSF); (2) 100% fry obtained through artificial incubation of eggs and non-swimming sacfry (ENS); and (3) a mixed group consisting of 50% of each type (FSF+ENS). Fry were stocked into 530–1 cylindroconical tanks at a density of seven fish/l (3700/tank) and reared on an androgen-treated diet for 30 days. While specific growth rates (range = 17·1–17·8% body weight/day) did not differ (P > 0·05) among treatments, significant (P < 0.05) differences were observed for survival and feed conversion ratio (FCR). ENS showed highest survival (76·8%) and lowest FCR (1·14), FSF showed intermediate survival (59·2%) and FCR(l·33), while the mixed-age group (FSF+ENS) showed lowest survival (38·5%) and highest FCR (1·70). Under all treatments, a majority of fry losses were attributed to cannibalism. A highly significant (P < 0·001) negative regression between survival and coefficient of variation of initial weights (CV = SD/X) indicated that cannibalism was reduced by minimizing age/size variation at stocking. The CV of initial weight may be a useful parameter for predicting fry survival under intensive tank culture.

Report on captive hatches of California condors (Gymnogyps californianus): 1983-1990

The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) recovery plan entails increasing the reproductive rate via replacement-clutch manipulation and artificial incubation of eggs. During the period from 1983 to 1990, 37 eggs have been artificially incubated; 32 of these were known to be fertile and 28 hatched (fertility: 86.5%; hatchability: 87.5%).

Science and the Art of Incubation

The artificial incubation of eggs of domesticated species can now be carried out with a high degree of success. However, advances in understanding about the problems faced by the developing embryo during incubation are still being made; and some may help “fine-tune” the incubation process. This paper deals particularly with the use of egg-cooling during incubation as a means of manipulating takeoff times, the use of water-vapor conductance monitoring by weight to predict the optimal humidity conditions for batches of eggs from different strains and species, cuticle-stripping to improve embryonic respiratory gas exchange, and some aspects of egg hygiene.Problems with hatchability usually can be traced to factors such as infertility, faulty breeder nutrition, disease status, or poor egg handling and hygiene, rather than to faulty incubation technique per se. Outlined here are the steps taken to solve an interesting but serious hatchability problem, the cause of which was traced to the presence of kapok seed meal in the breeder diet.

Scanning electron microscopy study of the causes of mortality in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) eggs under artificial incubation

Abstract. The practice of artificial incubation of eggs of the mouth brooding cichlid genus Oreochromis has considerable advantages over maternal incubation. However, problems arise in providing the eggs with conditions which simulate the buccal environment during incubation. Investigations into the causes of mortality of O. mossambicus (Peters) eggs under artificial incubation were carried out using scanning electron microscopy. Mechanical injury to the chorionic membrane, potentially pathogenic bacterial action and secondary fungal attack form a series of consequent events occurring on the O. mossambicus eggs under artificial incubation. These events appear to make a considerable contribution towards the mortality of developing eggs. The findings of the study are relevant to the types of treatments used to improve egg survival in hatchery systems.

Effects of Frequency of Egg and Fry Removal on Spawning by Tilapia nilotica in Hapas

Abstract Tilapia nilotica were spawned in small-mesh net enclosures called hapas. During a 5-week period, eggs and fry were removed from mouth-brooding females at examination intervals of 2, 4, 7, or 10 d. A decrease in time between examination intervals increased the total number of spawns collected (P < 0.05), but more spawns were obtained per examination for the 7- and 10-d intervals (P < 0.05). For artificial incubation of eggs, the 7-d interval was considered optimal.

Artificial Incubation of Falcon Eggs

The effectiveness of captive breeding as a conservation tactic for birds often depends heavily on successful artificial incubation of eggs. Incubation procedures for peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) eggs were developed using mathematical models and applying empirical information. Each egg was incubated as an individual at carefully regulated temperatures and under calculated conditions of humidity to maximize hatching success. Using this procedure, approximately 83% of all fertile peregrine eggs laid by captive falcons were hatched in 1979 and 1980. Over 90% of all fertile, live eggs received from wild peregrine falcon eyries between 1978 and 1980 were also hatched. The incubation procedures described for falcon eggs appear applicable for use with other bird eggs. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 47(1):158-168 In current peregrine falcon recovery efforts, successful artificial incubation and hatching of peregrine eggs is essential (Burnham et al. 1978, Fyfe 1975). In this paper I examine data that clarify questions regarding egg volume and weight, shell thickness, shell conductance, incubation time, and incubation and hatching procedures in artificial incubation of peregrine eggs. In addition, information obtained from peregrine eggs was used to develop procedures for artificial incubation of other bird eggs. I acknowledge The Peregrine Fund, Inc. (President, T. Cade) and all those who support the program without whose help this work could not have been accomplished. Special thanks are extended to D. Konkel and W. Heinrich for assistance in production of peregrine eggs and young, and to J. Enderson, J. Weaver, and G. Packard for advice and consultation. This manuscript was improved by the reviews of J. Enderson, S. Sherrod, R. Ryder, H. Enos, C. Carey, J. Grier, W. Graul, H. Rahn, L. Boyd, and T. Cade. The many drafts and final manuscript were typed by P. Burnham, whose patient and critical assistance is appreciated. METHODS The conditions under which captive peregrine falcons are held for breeding by The Peregrine Fund have been described previously (Cade et al. 1977). Falcon eggs obtained from captive pairs or nests in the wild (Burnham et al. 1978) were incubated in forced-air desk-top Marsh Farm Roll-X incubators which had been modified (Burnham 1978). All eggs were turned by hand bi-hourly. When eggs pipped they were moved to identical units with similar humidities but lower temperatures. Once the eggs hatched, the chicks were brooded by an Aquatic K-Module and K-pad orthopedic heat-pad (Hamilton Industries, Cincinnati, Ohio) that I adapted for the rearing of falcons. About 300 eggs produced by captive falcons at The Peregrine Fund facility in Fort Collins, Colorado, between 1978 and 1980 were used in this study. In addition, approximately 100 eggs were removed from peregrine eyries in Colorado and New Mexico and hatched in incubators; the resulting young were returned to the wild. Most clutches laid by wild peregrines were removed early in incubation 158 J. Wildl. Manage. 47(1):1983 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.171 on Sat, 25 Jun 2016 06:39:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms INCUBATION OF FALCON EGGS * Burnham 159 and transported to Fort Collins by automobile or aircraft in portable incubators operated at approximately 37.0 C. Initial (fresh) egg weights were seldom available and had to be estimated because an egg begins to lose weight after it is laid even though physical measurements of the shell remain the same. Consequently, I used Hoyt's (1979b) general equation for calculating the fresh weight of avian eggs (see Table 1):

Sex ratio bias in hatchling sea turtles from artificially incubated eggs

Artificial incubation of eggs of green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, above ground in styrofoam boxes results in a 23% drop in the number of hatchlings with ovaries, compared with samples from clutches left on the beach in natural conditions. This masculinization is consistent with the well-known effects of temperature on sexual differentiation in chelonians and with measurements showing that the styrofoam boxes were 1–1·5°C cooler than the sand on the beach at the depth of turtle nests. These findings verify previous suspicions about the use of styrofoam boxes in management programmes for sea turtles, and have implications for the conservation and husbandry of reptiles in general.