Artery Perforator Free Flap Research Articles

Abdominoplasty as the patient impetus for selection of the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flap for knee coverage

Extensive wounds about the knee can rarely be covered with local or even regional flaps. Free flaps often then become obligatory. Many factors will determine the surgeon's selection of the best donor site. Yet the patients' concerns with donor site morbidity cannot be overlooked. Most would agree that a large, but relatively thin flap would be optimal to preserve knee mobility. The deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) flap would therefore not usually be the donor site of choice from the surgeon's perspective. However, the opportunity to have a concomitant abdominoplasty that would improve body image or result in a scar readily hidden by clothing is an enticement for the patient not to be dismissed, under what normally are otherwise depressing circumstances. Over the past decade, three female patients have chosen the DIEAP free flap solely for the latter reasons, fully realizing that later flap revision would be needed to improve the function and appearance at the recipient site.

Evaluation of Reconstructive Techniques for Anterior and Middle Skull Base Defects Following Tumor Ablation

Reconstruction after resection of head and neck cancer can be challenging, especially when tumors extend to the base of the skull. Vascularized flaps are the option of choice, whether free or pedicled. Free flaps have the added benefit of access to the more cephalad defects of the anterior cranial base without the constraints of the rotation arc of pedicled flaps. The authors compared various flaps used for the reconstruction of defects of the anterior or middle skull base after resection of malignant tumors. The authors identified 12 patients in whom 14 flaps were performed. All patients had malignant neoplasms extending to the anterior or middle cranial base that were reconstructed with free or pedicled flaps. A retrospective analysis was performed to compare the characteristics of patient demographics, tumor, and surgical technique. Complications among the various flaps were compared. Patients' assessments of function and quality of life were assessed by conducting a telephone survey. Most patients had stage 3 or 4 squamous cell carcinoma originating in the paranasal sinuses and extending to the anterior or middle skull base, requiring orbital exenteration. The flaps used included 6 radial forearm free flaps (RFFFs), 3 anterolateral thigh flaps (ALTs), 4 thoracodorsal artery perforator free flaps (TDAPs), and 1 pedicled supraclavicular flap. There were no major complications, such as perioperative heart attack, stroke, death, or meningitis. Minor complications included 3 mesh exposures after radiation treatment, 1 wound infection, and 2 flaps with wound dehiscence after radiation. These 2 dehiscences were seen with RFFFs and were later reoperated using TDAPs. There were no cerebrospinal fluid leaks or donor-site morbidity. There were no complaints of functional deficits, such as feeding difficulties or speech impairments. Some visual disturbance was reported after orbital exenteration, although this was an expected outcome. Vascularized flaps provide reliable and durable reconstructive options for anterior and middle skull base defects after resection of large complex malignant neoplasms of the craniofacial region. Free flaps, such as RFFFs, ALTs, and TDAPs, are well suited for these defects. They have a low risk of complications and low donor-site morbidity and offer good functional and esthetic outcomes.

Ulnar Artery Perforator Free Flap for Finger Resurfacing

The ulnar forearm flap has been performed by many authors for the reconstruction of finger injuries. This article describes the refinement of the perforator anatomy based on ulnar artery and presents our clinical experience using ulnar artery perforator free flap for finger resurfacing. An anatomical study conducted in 10 cadaver forearms demonstrated the consistent origin of the ulnar perforator from the ulnar artery 40 mm proximal to the pisiform. The diameter of the artery was 0.9 mm and the average length of the perforator from the skin to the origin of ulnar artery was 20 mm. Based on this anatomic knowledge, 5 patients underwent ulnar artery perforator flap operations for finger resurfacing. All flaps survived without complication, and the patients were satisfied with the aesthetic and function outcome. The ulnar artery perforator flap is thin and pliable and provides nonhairy skin with color and texture matches. In addition, it is a simple and fast procedure with a reliable and constant blood supply. The ulnar artery perforator flap could be an alternative for the resurfacing of finger defects.

Rethinking the superficial inferior epigastric artery flap in breast reconstruction: Video demonstration of a rapid, reliable harvest technique

Abdominal-based autologous free tissue breast reconstruction has undergone significant changes over the past decade. The evolution has focused on limiting morbidity of the donor site. The transition from the transverse rectus abdominus muscle free flap to the muscle-sparing transverse rectus abdominus muscle free flap to the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flap has markedly improved abdominal-based autologous breast reconstruction. However, all of these flaps involve an incision through the anterior rectus fascia and potential damage of intercostal motor and sensory nerves. The superficial inferior epigastric artery flap (SIEA) reliably perfuses the ipsilateral hemiabdomen, yet does not violate the fascia or any motor nerves. As a result, the incidence of hernia, abdominal wall weakness and bulging is essentially eliminated. Nevertheless, use of the SIEA flap remains marginal. Vessel size, dissection difficulties and lack of understanding of the relevant anatomy have limited its acceptance. The present article describes a rapid, reliable and safe dissection technique with an algorithm for harvesting the SIEA flap in autologous breast reconstruction.

Clinical Application of the Internal Mammary Artery Perforator Flap in Head and Neck Reconstruction

The skin texture of the internal mammary artery perforator flap closely resembles that in the face and neck, making it the perfect source of tissue for head and neck reconstruction. In this article, the authors describe their experience in recent application of this flap in head and neck reconstruction and evaluate its pros and cons. A total of 15 patients (three women and 12 men) with a mean age of 58.6 years received an internal mammary artery perforator flap for head and neck defect repair from April of 2007 to August of 2011. There were 11 internal mammary artery perforator pedicle flaps and four internal mammary artery perforator free flaps. Flap size ranged from 5 × 3 cm to 15 × 8 cm, pedicle length ranged from 3 to 6 cm, and 14 of 15 flaps (93.3 percent) had a sizable perforator identified during dissection. In the female patient who had no sizable perforator, the originally intended free flap was transformed to a platysma myocutaneous flap, which served as a backup procedure, extending from the same surgical incision. All of the transfers were successful. The donor sites were closed primarily in all patients except one, who received a split-thickness skin graft for a 15 × 8-cm donor defect. With excellent skin color and tissue texture matching and minimal donor-site morbidity, the internal mammary artery perforator flap is emerging as a potential alternative reconstructive tool for the head and neck region.

Comparison of the Multidetector-row Computed Tomographic Angiography Axial and Coronal Planes' Usefulness for Detecting Thoracodorsal Artery Perforators

BackgroundDuring the planning of a thoracodorsal artery perforator (TDAP) free flap, preoperative multidetector-row computed tomographic (MDCT) angiography is valuable for predicting the locations of perforators. However, CT-based perforator mapping of the thoracodorsal artery is not easy because of its small diameter. Thus, we evaluated 1-mm-thick MDCT images in multiple planes to search for reliable perforators accurately.MethodsBetween July 2010 and October 2011, 19 consecutive patients (13 males, 6 females) who underwent MDCT prior to TDAP free flap operations were enrolled in this study. Patients ranged in age from 10 to 75 years (mean, 39.3 years). MDCT images were acquired at a thickness of 1 mm in the axial, coronal, and sagittal planes.ResultsThe thoracodorsal artery perforators were detected in all 19 cases. The reliable perforators originating from the descending branch were found in 14 cases, of which 6 had transverse branches. The former were well identified in the coronal view, and the latter in the axial view. The location of the most reliable perforators on MDCT images corresponded well with the surgical findings.ConclusionsThough MDCT has been widely used in performing the abdominal perforator free flap for detecting reliable perforating vessels, it is not popular in the TDAP free flap. The results of this study suggest that multiple planes of MDCT may increase the probability of detecting the most reliable perforators, along with decreasing the probability of missing available vessels.

A New Option for Autologous Anterior Chest Wall Reconstruction: The Composite Thoracodorsal Artery Perforator Flap

Sternal chondrosarcoma is rare and often requires total or subtotal sternectomy. The authors describe the case of a 70-year-old man with sternoclavicular joint chondrosarcoma who underwent subtotal sternectomy with partial resection of the two clavicles and anterior arches of first to third right ribs. Anterior chest wall reconstruction was performed with a composite thoracodorsal artery perforator free flap with sixth and seventh ribs vascularized on serratus muscle. The postoperative course was uneventful. Seven months after surgery, the patient was doing well. This surgical procedure is a new option for autologous reconstruction without prosthetic material after extensive sternectomy.

Sitting on a gold mine: Optimal autologous reconstruction of a significant cosmetic contour defect of the buttock using a deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flap

The options for reconstruction of soft tissue defects of the buttock include custom prosthetic implants and autologous tissue transfer: fat transfer, local flaps, pedicled flaps and free flaps. Optimal reconstruction involves replacement of like-with-like tissue, sufficient padding and adequate contouring. We report a case of a female patient presenting with a significant cosmetic contour defect of her left buttock following previous excision of a malignant fibrous histiocytoma. The patient had autologous buttock reconstruction using a deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flap with an excellent result. To our knowledge a deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flap has not previously been described to reconstruct the buttock.

Justifying the Use of Abdominal Wall Computed Tomographic Angiography in Deep Inferior Epigastric Artery Perforator Flap Planning

Abdominal wall computed tomography angiography (CTA) is used to guide preoperative planning and intraoperative technique for deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flap breast reconstructive surgery. This study considers the amount of radiation delivered to the patient, outlining how scan parameters can be optimized to minimize the radiation exposure whilst maintaining image quality. Results of scan parameters and dose reports for 34 patients undergoing abdominal wall CTA are compared with those patients undergoing routine abdominal computed tomography. The links between computed tomography dose quantities are explained, including their conversion to effective dose (in mSv) and risk as the probability for inducing deterministic effects (eg, skin burns) and stochastic effects (ie, cancer induction). The mean effective dose by using our technique for routine abdominal computed tomography is 9.9 and for abdominal wall CTA is 6.0 mSv. All doses are far below the thresholds for deterministic effects to the skin. Abdominal wall CTA can be justified before major reconstructive surgery if the surgeon believes that the very low estimated risk of fatal radiation-induced cancer (1 in 4270 for 6 mSv) is outweighed by the benefits.

Secondary extremity reconstruction with free perforator flaps for aesthetic purposes

Perforator flap surgery enables surgeons to tailor flaps to individual requirements with reduced donor-site morbidity. The technique allows better aesthetic results to be achieved in various fields of microsurgical reconstruction, but reports on aesthetic resurfacing and contour restoration of extremity deformities are sparse. The authors present their experience of elective reconstructions of established deformities in the extremities for aesthetic purposes using free perforator flaps. Aesthetic results were evaluated using a questionnaire and by photographic grading. From March 2006 to June 2010, 15 free flaps were transferred in 14 patients for aesthetic purposes to restore established skin and soft-tissue deformities in the extremities. Twelve flaps were transferred to lower extremities and three to upper extremities. After recreating tissue deficiencies, flaps were precisely designed and elevated with elaborate flap insetting and thickness control. Patient-assessment questionnaires were administered after surgery, and aesthetic results were evaluated using photographs by independent observers. Photographic gradings were assessed statistically using the generalised estimating equation. Eight deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flaps and seven thoracodorsal artery perforator free flaps were used in the 14 patients. Flap sizes ranged from 8 × 14 to 14 × 38 cm, and all flaps survived well. The patient satisfaction rate was high, and aesthetic improvements were confirmed by conducting objective photographic evaluations. Statistically significant changes were detected during the photographic evaluation (p < 0.05). Secondary reconstruction using a customised free perforator flap to achieve aesthetic improvements is a valuable option for the restoration of established skin and soft-tissue deformities in the extremities.

Microvascular eyebrow transplantation

Eyebrow reconstruction is a challenge because eyebrow hair is unique. Although various surgical methods have been used to reconstruct eyebrow defects, to the best of our knowledge, the use of eyebrow free flaps for eyebrow reconstruction has not been reported. We describe the successful reconstruction of a large eyebrow defect using a supraorbital artery perforator free flap and show that microvascular eyebrow transplantation is another tool for reconstructing large eyebrow defects. Accordingly, we recommend that microvascular eyebrow transplantation be considered a useful option for the reconstruction of large eyebrow defects.

Clinical application and outcome of the internal mammary artery perforator (IMAP) free flap for soft tissue reconstructions of the upper head and neck region in three patients

The fasciocutaneous internal mammary artery perforator (IMAP) island flap allows for superior esthetical and functional skin cover in the head and neck region in combination with limited donor site morbidity. Its modification as a free flap allows reconstruction of more cranial defects. Three IMAP free flaps varying from 7 × 4 cm² to 10 × 6 cm² were transplanted in three patients with a mean age of 59 years (range, 54-69 years). Enhancement of the flap's vascular pedicle at least doubles the diameter of the internal mammary vessels to be anastomosed. Coverage with excellent texture and color match was uneventfully obtained and the flaps' donor sites were primarily closed in all three cases. Our experience proves the consistent feasibility of successful transplantation of the IMAP free flap. Because of its characteristics, we suggest contemplating the use of this flap in the upper head and neck region.

Case of the Season: Acquired Cholesteatoma

Reconstruction after resection of head and neck cancer can be challenging, especially when tumors extend to the base of the skull. Vascularized flaps are the option of choice, whether free or pedicled. Free flaps have the added benefit of access to the more cephalad defects of the anterior cranial base without the constraints of the rotation arc of pedicled flaps. The authors compared various flaps used for the reconstruction of defects of the anterior or middle skull base after resection of malignant tumors.The authors identified 12 patients in whom 14 flaps were performed. All patients had malignant neoplasms extending to the anterior or middle cranial base that were reconstructed with free or pedicled flaps. A retrospective analysis was performed to compare the characteristics of patient demographics, tumor, and surgical technique. Complications among the various flaps were compared. Patients' assessments of function and quality of life were assessed by conducting a telephone survey.Most patients had stage 3 or 4 squamous cell carcinoma originating in the paranasal sinuses and extending to the anterior or middle skull base, requiring orbital exenteration. The flaps used included 6 radial forearm free flaps (RFFFs), 3 anterolateral thigh flaps (ALTs), 4 thoracodorsal artery perforator free flaps (TDAPs), and 1 pedicled supraclavicular flap. There were no major complications, such as perioperative heart attack, stroke, death, or meningitis. Minor complications included 3 mesh exposures after radiation treatment, 1 wound infection, and 2 flaps with wound dehiscence after radiation. These 2 dehiscences were seen with RFFFs and were later reoperated using TDAPs. There were no cerebrospinal fluid leaks or donor-site morbidity. There were no complaints of functional deficits, such as feeding difficulties or speech impairments. Some visual disturbance was reported after orbital exenteration, although this was an expected outcome.Vascularized flaps provide reliable and durable reconstructive options for anterior and middle skull base defects after resection of large complex malignant neoplasms of the craniofacial region. Free flaps, such as RFFFs, ALTs, and TDAPs, are well suited for these defects. They have a low risk of complications and low donor-site morbidity and offer good functional and esthetic outcomes.

Acute upper limb ischaemia following chest wall reconstruction – A word of caution

Irradiation arteriopathy, although rare, is a recognised entity following radiotherapy for the management of advanced cancers. It is known to manifest in varied forms and can be chronic and progressive. We present a case of an acute upper limb ischaemia following deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) free flap reconstruction for a chest wall defect in a patient who had previously undergone radiotherapy 25 years back for carcinoma of the breast. It is envisaged that the axillary artery was thrombosed secondary to radiation arteriopathy and the collaterals that had developed were probably damaged during debridement of the irradiated unhealthy tissue prior to free flap reconstruction. A cross-limb vascular graft tunnelled under the flap restored the perfusion to the limb. We propose that the possibility of radiation arteriopathy should be considered and a preoperative arteriogram should be performed prior to planning any major surgical reconstruction in patients having undergone irradiation to major vascular beds.

Simultaneous Bilateral Breast Reconstruction With In-the-Crease Inferior Gluteal Artery Perforator Flaps

The inferior gluteal artery perforator (IGAP) free flap represents an alternative technique for autogenous breast reconstruction in patients with insufficient abdominal donor tissue. Historically, patients underwent a staged approach for bilateral breast reconstruction with the IGAP because it is technically demanding and can be time consuming. The bilateral simultaneous IGAP can be performed effectively with 2 microsurgeons operating together. This is a retrospective study of 22 patients (44 flaps) who underwent bilateral breast reconstruction with bilateral IGAP flaps in one operation between January 2005 and December 2007. The following parameters were evaluated and compared to our published data with unilateral IGAP flap reconstruction: operating time, blood loss, flap weight, hospital length of stay, and perioperative complications. A follow-up patient survey was also conducted to gauge patient's satisfaction with the donor site and procedure. The flap survival rate was 100%. Complications included 1 patient with 1 flap with partial fat necrosis, 2 patients who required reoperation for venous congestion, 1 patient with a hematoma, 2 patients with delayed buttock wound healing, 2 patients requiring resuturing for buttock wound dehiscence, and 1 patient with resolved paresthesias. The majority of patients were satisfied with the procedure and donor site. In this study, we detail our experience with the inferior gluteal region as a reliable source of donor tissue and the simultaneous bilateral IGAP flap as an efficient method of breast reconstruction.

Plantar Reconstruction Using the Medial Sural Artery Perforator Free Flap

Free flaps are usually required rather than local flaps for large plantar defects, due to a lack of locally available tissue. The medial sural artery perforator free flap, recently introduced clinically by several authors, is a noticeable option for soft tissue coverage, but it has still not been widely used for the reconstruction of various large plantar defects. Between 2005 and 2007, medial sural artery perforator free flaps were used to reconstruct soft tissue defects in plantar areas in 11 patients at our institute. Patient ages ranged from 10 to 68 years (mean, 43 years), and follow-up periods ranged from 7 to 22 months (mean, 13 months). Flap sizes ranged from 10 to 14 cm in length and from 5 to 7 cm in width. Flaps survived in all patients. Marginal loss over the distal flap region was noted in 1 patient, and this was treated successfully with a subsequent split-thickness skin graft. In another one case, venous insufficiency developed, but salvage was successful with leech application. Long-term follow-up showed good flap durability with a protective sensation. The medial sural artery perforator flap provides sufficient durability for weight-bearing areas, even though it is a thin cutaneous flap. The authors recommend that this flap be considered as a reliable alternative for the reconstruction of large plantar defects.

Deep inferior epigastric artery perforator free flaps in head and neck reconstruction

The advantage of free perforator flaps versus free musculocutaneous flaps is the reduced morbidity of the donor site with preservation of nerves, muscles and deep fascia. In this study, we evaluated the reconstruction results of deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) free flaps in the head and neck. A retrospective review was performed of 12 patients with head and neck tumor ablation defects that were reconstructed with the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) free flaps between January 2004 and December 2006. Reconstruction outcomes and complications were measured. Recipient sites were subdivided into defects of total or subtotal glossectomy (N=6), three-dimensional defects of midface (N=3), through and through defects of the cheek (N=2), and anterior skull base resection with an external skin component defect (N=1).The overall free flap success rate was 92% (11/12). One DIEAP free flap was lost because the draining jugular vein thrombosed. No complications were observed in the donor site, including abdominal bulge or hernia. Due to the advantage of minimum donor site morbidity, the DIEAP free flap is a new and reliable reconstruction choice for head and neck surgical defects.

O.156 Perforator flaps in head and neck reconstruction

The advantage of free perforator flaps versus free musculocutaneous flaps is the reduced morbidity of the donor site with preservation of nerves, muscles and deep fascia. In this study, we evaluated the reconstruction results of deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) free flaps in the head and neck.A retrospective review was performed of 12 patients with head and neck tumor ablation defects that were reconstructed with the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) free flaps between January 2004 and December 2006. Reconstruction outcomes and complications were measured.Recipient sites were subdivided into defects of total or subtotal glossectomy (N = 6), three-dimensional defects of midface (N = 3), through and through defects of the cheek (N = 2), and anterior skull base resection with an external skin component defect (N = 1).The overall free flap success rate was 92% (11/12). One DIEAP free flap was lost because the draining jugular vein thrombosed. No complications were observed in the donor site, including abdominal bulge or hernia.Due to the advantage of minimum donor site morbidity, the DIEAP free flap is a new and reliable reconstruction choice for head and neck surgical defects.

The In-the-Crease Inferior Gluteal Artery Perforator Flap for Breast Reconstruction

Perforator free flaps harvested from the abdomen or buttock are excellent options for breast reconstruction. They enable the reconstructive surgeon to recreate a breast with skin and fat while leaving muscle at the donor site undisturbed. The gluteal artery perforator free flap using buttock tissue was first introduced by the authors' group in 1993. Of the 279 gluteal artery perforator flaps, the authors have performed for breast reconstruction, 220 have been based on the superior gluteal artery and 59 have been based on the inferior gluteal artery. The authors have found that for some women with excess tissue in the upper buttock and hip area, use of the gluteal artery perforator flap resulted in an improvement at the donor site, whereas for others the aesthetic unit of the buttock was clearly disrupted. Therefore, the authors have recently been placing the scar in the inferior buttock crease to improve donor-site aesthetics. The authors have now performed 31 in-the-crease inferior gluteal artery perforator free flaps for breast reconstruction and found that the results are very favorable. The removal of tissue from the inferior buttock results in a tightened, lifted appearance. The resultant scar is well concealed within the infrabuttock crease, and exposure or injury of the sciatic nerve has not occurred. Extended beveling at this site is also possible, with less risk of causing an unsightly depression. The final aesthetic result of the scar lying within the inferior buttock crease is very favorable. All patients report satisfaction with the donor site. Complications included one total flap loss, two reoperations for venous congestion, one hematoma, two cases with delayed wound healing at the recipient site, and one with delayed wound healing at the buttock. The in-the-crease inferior gluteal artery perforator flap from the buttock is now the authors' primary alternative to the deep inferior epigastric perforator flap from the abdomen for breast reconstruction.

Clinical Experience with the Medial Sural Artery Perforator Free Flap

Clinical Experience with the Medial Sural Artery Perforator Free Flap