Art History Classes Research Articles

Exploring the Effectiveness of Virtual Reality Role-Playing in Debating Repatriation of Artworks in Active Learning Art History Classes

This paper addresses the pressing issue of repatriation debates for artworks, heightened by notable instances like the return of the Benin Bronzes and discussions around the Elgin Marbles. Given the challenges in conducting effective classroom debates on such sensitive topics due to the pandemic, generational shifts in learning preferences, and increased student anxiety, this study identifies a gap in the integration of active learning strategies in a virtual setting. The primary aim of this research is to examine the efficacy of virtual reality role-playing games (VR-RPGs) in enhancing student engagement, immersion, presence, and learning outcomes within a virtual learning environment (VLE). This is set against the backdrop of the potential advantages of VR-RPGs, which allow students to adopt different personas, thus potentially reducing direct confrontation and facilitating a more immersive learning experience. The research contributes to the pedagogical field by assessing the applicability of avatar-based VR-RPGs in VLEs and examining their correlation with improved understanding of cultural repatriation ethics, diverse perspectives, and alleviating student anxiety in groupwork. Our results indicate a notable positive relationship between VR-RPG activities and the aforementioned learning outcomes, signifying the importance of such approaches in contemporary art history education.

Exploring Students’ Experiences of Virtual Learning Environment for Art History Classroom

During the Covid 19, students and instructors experienced double-way synchronization distance classes. Recently, the metaverse was drawn much attention to the online virtual world as a channel for social interaction. It has received renewed interest as a new method of surmounting the limitations of external activities after the pandemic. A few studies have focused on the usability of metaverse in a classroom, but no attention was paid to its applicability to Art History as well as to the higher level of education. In order to compensate for the limitations of two-way synchronized remote learning in university art history classes, Gather.Town was adopted as a metaverse platform in both Western modern art history classes and art history methodology classes. In this study, we surveyed and interviewed students who used both WebEx and Gather.Town. This study examines students’ experiences in accessibility, social presence, convenience of interaction, interest and immersion, and satisfaction when the students use the metaverse platform, Gather.Town. The examination of this study confirms that the virtual space of metaverse was more helpful in making students feel a sense of presence, interaction, and engagement than WebEx and demonstrates the possibility of this platform as a sustainable and valid tool in Art History Education.

Illuminating the Science of Art History: The Advent of the Slide Lecture in France

In the late 1880s and early 1890s, a small number of professors – including Charles Diehl, Louis Courajod and Henry Lemonnier – started projecting photographic reproductions in their art history classes in France. They were among the first to teach the subject in the country’s universities. This newly accessible technology enabled artwork-based demonstrations in the classroom for large audiences, complementing and eventually replacing paper photographs, plaster casts and other methods of reproduction. From the mid-1890s, demand for slide projections in universities was reinforced by the popularity of educational slideshows in French culture. They would become omnipresent in art history departments by World War I. This article explores when and why the projected photograph was adopted by art historians in lecture halls, the ways in which individual professors employed and discussed slides, and how their respective institutions invested in this activity. I argue that for the educators who instituted slide projection, the practice was about grounding the young discipline’s methodology in the analysis of empirical data. It gave concrete form to scientific enquiry and was attractive to students. Showing slides was thus a powerful practical and ideological tool in the establishment of art history as an academic discipline in France.

Methodological Foundation for the Organization and Conduct of the Business Game Aimed at University Students in Art History Classes

The development of new teaching methods is an important condition that increases the universal and professional competence of future professionals, which in turn accelerates the process of postgraduate adaptation in the professional communities of culture and art. The aim of the study is to develop methodological principles and techniques for effective teaching of art students. The article reevaluates the fundamental techniques of higher education, focusing on the role of a teacher and student in this process. As a result, we provided a theoretical summary of the experience of teaching disciplines in the field of art and culture. Based on the system-activity approach and human-personal pedagogy research, the study showed the effectiveness of the business game as an interactive method of learning in a rapidly changing socio-cultural environment. We also determined the features and basic pedagogical principles of organizing and conducting business game. The study demonstrated the strengths of business game as an imitative collective game method of active learning in work with students studying art history disciplines. A new form of business game for the disciplines of art history cycle was put forward. We argues that the acquired knowledge and skills meet the needs of professional communities in regards to the competences of young professionals in the field of culture and arts.

Surveying the art history mystery: Student opinions of outcomes and value

Higher education professionals in art history agree that the downward trend of funding and enrolment will continue if changes to art history curriculum are not made that bring to light how relevant and helpful art history can be to students of all demographic populations and academic majors. This study seeks to explore student perspectives of how art history is currently being taught and their opinions on what outcomes art history class offers that they value. Current art history students completed a survey that assessed student perspectives about their art history class. Findings indicate that students value art history knowledge (AHKO) and find lecture to be efficient. However, they would also appreciate other instructional methods such as in-class activities, which they believe would help them learn critical thinking (CTO), and discussion and homework projects, which they believe would help them learn creativity. Students of all majors find AHKO, CTO, creativity to be valuable skills that are taught in art history.

Overcoming plastic waste problem in Indonesia: Case study in the art history class

Nowadays, more than ever, plastic waste becomes a major problem for almost every nation in the world, including Indonesia. Creative solutions are needed to be the answer to overcome this urgent issue. Although there have been many attempts to create better waste management, these ongoing efforts are still far from the expectation. Therefore, every sector needs to collaborate to be part of the solution, including the education sector. The young generation is fertile ground for the birth of innovative ways to reduce plastic waste. This research aims to show that everything, even things as old as historical artifacts, can be a source of inspiration to overcome the plastic waste problem in Indonesia. However, an appropriate skill set is needed to extract this local content and make it suitable for the current digital society. This qualitative research is conducted through a case study using lateral thinking mode to prove that all things can be the source of inspiration to generate ideas. We can conclude that ideas can come from anywhere in the form of anything. Even though historical artifacts come from a long time ago, and even some have been around for hundreds of years, they possess unique local ingenious capacities.

Effects of the self-regulated strategy within the context of spherical video-based virtual reality on students’ learning performances in an art history class

ABSTRACT In recent years, several researchers have introduced spherical video-based virtual reality (SVVR) into classroom teaching to help students learn different subjects. In SVVR learning, learners are typically presented with great autonomy over their learning process. Therefore, learners should engage in self-regulated strategy (SRS) learning in order to successfully study in SVVR. However, learners often struggle to self-regulate their learning. Therefore, we implemented a SRS intervention in SVVR. In this study, a SVVR environment was developed to situate students in art history contexts; moreover, the SRS was employed to guide students to improve their performance and to make reflections on their own performance. In order to evaluate the proposed approach’s effectiveness, we carried out an experiment in a university art history class. The experiment results reveal more positive effects of the SRS-based SVVR approach compared with the non-SRS-based SVVR approach in terms of the learners’ learning achievements, self-regulation, meta-cognitive awareness, as well as self-efficacy. In addition, this study specified that this approach would not have an effect on students’ cognitive load. As a result, the SRS-based SVVR approach proposed in the current study was effective in art history education.

Heritage of al-Farabi in art-culturaland pedagogical understanding

The relevance of the scientific article is due to the significant date of 2020 – the 1150th anniversary of the birth and 1060th anniversary of the death of Abu Nasr Ibn Muhammad al-Farabi-an outstanding thinker-scientist of the East, philosopher, encyclopedic, great humanist. At the world art history classes on the theme «Culture of the Arab-Muslim East», at creative seminars on the history of arts of Kazakhstan, the image of al-Farabi, recreated in the visual arts, and his humanitarian heritage are discussed. Al-Farabi is the author of commentaries on the writings of Aristotle (hence his honorary title of «Second teacher») and Plato. He is credited with the creation of the Otrar library. It should be recalled that in 1975, on a large international scale, Moscow, Alma-Ata and Baghdad celebrated the 1100th anniversary of the birth of al-Farabi. His irreplaceable intellectual heritage: he has works on ethics, politics, psychology, natural science, music, but especially known works on logic and philosophy. The main questions of the article: a brief biographical sketch of al-Farabi, about the artists A. Ismailov, S. Kalmakhanov, K. Azhibekuly, the creation of the image of al- Farabi in their creative heritage.

A Case Study on ‘Art Classes’ Approach in Holistic Paradism

본 연구는 2015 개정 미술과 교육과정에서 중시되고 있는 ‘미술 문화 이해 능력’을 홀리스틱 패러다임의 교육에서 적용을 위한 기초적 배경과 실천적 사례를 탐구한 것이다. 홀리스틱 교육의 배경과 필요성, 미술 교육과의 연관성을 고찰 한 후, 서양 미술사를 중심으로 한 프로젝트 수업의 실천 사례를 통해 교육 방안과 의미를 탐색하였다. 급변하는 사회의 흐름 속에서 교육은 더 이상 단편적인 교과 지식을 가르치는 것이 아니라 기초 소양과 학력을 배경으로 서로 통합하고 융합하여 새로운 지식을 재생산하는 방향으로 변화하였다. 또한, 홀리스틱 교육은 과거 서구의 이성 중심의 세계관에서 벗어나고자 하는 대안에서 시작한 교육운동으로 ‘전체성’이라는 전제에서 유기적 관계 속에서 세상을 이해하고 통합과 협동, 변용의 과정을 거치며 끊임없이 새로움을 추구한다는 점에서 현재의 교육 흐름과 그 맥락을 같이 한다고 할 수 있다. 이 관점에서 출발하여 연구자는 서양 미술사에 기초하여 수업을 설계하고 실천하였다. 이 사례에서 학습자는 과거와 현재와의 관계, 자신과 타인과의 관계. 자신과 환경과의 관계를 체험할수 있었고, 이 과정에서 삶과 배움을 연결하고 타인을 이해하며 관계를 통해 자발적 참여를 보여 주었다. 이를 통해 학습자는 미술 문화를 단순히 지식으로 받아들이는 것이 아니라 생활의 측면으로 받아들이며 자신의 삶과 문화를 향유하는 능동적 주체로 자리 잡을 수 있었다.The purpose of this study is to explore basic background and practical examples for applying the use of ‘the ability to understand the culture of art’ which is emphasized in the 2015 Revised National Curriculum of art to the holistic educational paradigm. After examining the background, the necessity of holistic education and its relation to art education, the researcher studied the educational plan and its meaning by practicing project teaching method in Western art history class. In this rapidly changing society, education has shifted to cultivating the ability to combine and integrate standardized knowledge using one’s classical knowledge and academic background in order to reproduce new knowledge from delivering fragmented knowledge of a subject. In addition, holistic education is an educational movement that started as an alternative to the reason-centered world view of the West. In a similar vein, the current educational trend aims to understand the world in organic relationship on the premise of ‘holism’ and constantly pursue newness through the process of integration, cooperation and transformation. From this perspective, the researcher designed and practiced classes based on Western art history. In this example, the learners were able to experience the relationships between the past and the present, their connection to others and to environment. They also linked their life to learning, understood others and presented voluntary participation in the process. Through these, the learners succeeded in becoming active agents to enjoy their life and culture, accepting art culture not simply as knowledge but as a part of their life.

Art History classes in the Palermo Academy of Fine Arts from its beginnings until World War II

Art History classes in the Palermo Academy of Fine Arts from its beginnings until World War II

Art Therapy, Community Building, Activism, and Outcomes.

This article is a descriptive study of two groups who came together through service-learning: The first group is graduate art therapy students enrolled in a research class, who partnered with six community agencies to help them prepare assignments for undergraduate service-learning students in a subsequent semester. The art therapy research students also assisted the agencies with program evaluation. The second group is the six directors of the community agencies who were preparing for service-learning students enrolled in an art history class titled Art as A Social Practice. Service-learning is an experiential pedagogy where community service is integrated into an academic course, and where the services performed meet genuine community needs. The hyphen in service-learning represents the ideal that both the students and community agencies experience benefits from the relationship, although in reality, it is often the experiences of the students rather than the agencies that receive greater attention in the scholarly research literature. The present article places focus on the community agencies that, in the process of planning for service-learners, made two unexpected requests: First they requested that the service-learners stay longer than one semester, and secondly, they requested assistance with evaluating the effectiveness of their programs. This article is about the efforts to respond to these requests through the assistance of art therapy research students. With growing trends in community-based art therapy practice, greater attention to the community agencies where art therapists work is necessary and valuable to art therapy preparation. The present article describes six distinctive communities, illustrating new frontiers of practice. The research students’ experiences and the experiences of the community partners were assessed using qualitative methods that included pre and post-questionnaires, written reflections of students, interviews of agency directors and agency, student, and researcher focus group transcripts. This study will inform other art therapy programs who may want to use a service-learning approach to teaching research. A discussion of the promising practices of service-learning and research, as well as the challenges leads to recommendations for art therapy education.

The Visits and Other Poems/Las visitas y otros poemas by Mirta Yáñez

Reviewed by: The Visits and Other Poems/Las visitas y otros poemas by Mirta Yáñez Douglas LaPrade Yáñez, Mirta. The Visits and Other Poems/Las visitas y otros poemas. Translated by Elizabeth Gamble Miller. Cubanabooks, 2016. Pp. 135. ISBN 978-1-944176-11-2. Mirta Yáñez was born in Cuba in 1947, and she writes poems about how she first discovered Old Havana on a visit with her schoolmates. Yáñez's volume also represents her attempt to identify her unique persona within Cuba's literary heritage. Her effort reminds the academic reader of T. S. Eliot's essay, "Tradition and the Individual Talent," which teaches that the poet cannot articulate her own voice until she first renders homage to her poetic ancestry. This volume includes a prologue by José Antonio Portuondo, who recalls the poet's excursion to Old Havana with her fellow students in her art history class. Portuondo describes Yáñez's fascination with the various styles of architecture in the old Spanish colonial part of town, much of it dilapidated. Yáñez writes of the nostalgia evoked by the stained-glass windows, iron gratings, and art nouveau fixtures. For the contemporary American reader, Cuba is synonymous with nostalgia. Yáñez discovered the anachronistic charms of Cuba before the Revolution, so her poetry adds a valuable perspective. She adds depth to her reflections by evoking the specter of Rimbaud on her stroll through Old Havana. She also summons the voice of Bola de Nieve, a famous Cuban singer she recalls from her youth. Other poems in this collection remind the reader that Mirta Yáñez earned a doctoral degree and taught literature at the University of Havana. In fact, she writes with a sense of duty to preserve poetic tradition and to convey it to the next generation. The poem entitled "Quehacer generacional/A Generational Duty" is a virtual anthem to all professors of literature who have tried to persuade their students of the efficacy of poetry. The poem is a professor's impassioned plea to her students to embrace their poetic heritage. The very next poem in the volume, "Periodización/Periodicity," traces all the ages of poetry from Pre-Columbian, to the Conquest, to Neo-Classicism, Romanticism, and Modernism. This deliberate progression through the sequence of literary movements likewise recalls the poet's academic background. Mirta Yáñez is obsessed with acknowledging her debt to literary tradition, and she dedicates a poem to Christopher Columbus entitled "Primera crónica/First News Report." The poem never mentions the name of Columbus, who is identified as "El Almirante/The Admiral." In the poem, Yáñez imagines Columbus writing his first report of Cuba on a parchment. As he concludes his chronicle with a period, he stores the parchment unceremoniously next to a bead necklace that will be traded with the indigenous people of the island. The poem's ironic conclusion suggests that Cuba's first literary artifact also represents the origin of capitalism and commerce in Cuba, as well as the extinction of indigenous customs. In another poem, "Conferencia/A Lecture," the professor tries to explain the passions that inspired the ancient poets. As she lectures on the yellowed pages of the bygone poets, her mind [End Page 483] wanders, and she speculates on her students' desires and on her own emotions, which are not the subject of her lecture, but which are foretold by the ancients. Other poems pay homage to Latin American writers who have inspired Yáñez, such as Jorge Luis Borges, Rubén Darío, Horacio Quiroga, and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. In "Rubén," the professor introduces her students to a bust of the Nicaraguan poet and tries to make them understand the poet's struggle without referring to his poetry, but merely by contemplating the bust. The poem entitled "Contextos de Sor Juana Inés/The Contextual Contours of Sor Juana Inés" acknowledges the boldness of the early feminist poet. "Objetos/Objects" is a warning against the excessive nostalgia that inspires yet paralyzes poets. As the poem begins, the poet finds a small stone in a drawer and knows that she placed it there...

Developing secondary students’ epistemic agency in a knowledge-building community

A key educational objective for the twenty-first century is developing students’ epistemic agency. Epistemic agency is the active process of choosing when, what, where one learns and how one knows, as well as the capacity to create knowledge in a community. The knowledge-building communities model developed by Scardamalia and Bereiter was used in a New Zealand Year 13 distance art history class to support the development of students’ epistemic agency in 2013. In this study, students were given more control in the learning process, and were able to exercise epistemic agency through identifying their knowledge gaps, sharing information and ideas, developing ideas and creating communal knowledge. A number of factors that increased students’ development of epistemic agency are also discussed in this article.

Enhancement of Empathetic Ability of Korean Youth Using Re-enactment in Art History Class

Enhancement of Empathetic Ability of Korean Youth Using Re-enactment in Art History Class

The Leader as Artist

The Leader as Artist

Braids

Braids Craig Beaven (bio) Braids I believed in seeing a painting in person, after years of reproductions. Was I “passionate” or just naïve? In Braids nothing happens. In Wyeth’s Braids there is only each piece of hair, known intimately by God and the painter, strand and strand brought in to hold its own turning. High school art history and it beats across the screen, mote-mottled, projection-sized—years later I drove three days to stand here. This is where he stood, arm’s length from the canvas. This is Maine at the end of April; tomorrow it snows, and we watch an old man march into the ocean, submerge himself, walk out and shake it off. Why, standing at Braids, can I think not of this painting, but of approaching Press 40, the day after graduating high school, and what conspires to make the plant foreman start me at Press 40, of 44 presses? What does Wyeth [End Page 88] have to do with graveyard shift making dashboards except for fathers and concentration? The guy at 39 has sleeves of scar tissue, a purple luminescence poorly stitched on. Number 40 is the largest machine in the state. I know because my father built it. It slows my work to realize: have I seen this before, in dream? Drafting table, white lines on blue paper, the ghost of it emerging with each revision. He brought me here as a kid to explain how it worked, describe the tonnage, the many men it took. My father who was, at that moment, asleep, who I would pass in the kitchen this morning, on my way to bed, on his way here, to see how I did and if they need anything— replacement parts or adjustments. So I came to the far edge of a continent, so I walked through the field from Christina’s World— Why save any of this from the fire? Dear Origin Myth, are you in art history class or night shift hours sanding the rough edges of dashboards? I was there as a way of apologizing, but no one heard it amid the din, no one noticed such a gesture in the filing away of excess plastic. In Braids she stands alone in a cold, dark room, looking away. Someone is calling [End Page 89] but it doesn’t break her spell. They’ve been calling forever but they don’t know her name. The house is empty and quiet. This is the story of your life. [End Page 90] Craig Beaven Craig Beaven’s poems appear or are forthcoming in Third Coast, Carolina Quarterly, Cutbank, Southern Humanities Review, and other journals. His work was recently nominated for a Pushcart Prize. Copyright © 2013 University of Nebraska Press

Photography, criticism, and Native American women’s identity

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes Theresa Harlan, ‘As in Her Vision: Native American Women Photographers’, in Reframings: New American Feminist Photographies, ed Diane Neumaier, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1995; Lucy Lippard, ‘Independent Identities’, in Native American Art in the Twentieth Century, ed W Jackson Rushing, New Press, New York, 1999. Jacques Lacan, ‘The Mirror Stage as Formative Function of the I’, in Écrits: A Selection, New York, Norton, 1977; Frantz Fanon, Black Skins White Masks, Grove Press, New York, 1967; Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex, Routledge, New York, 1993. Jolene Rickard was a Gale Memorial guest lecturer at the Department of Art and Art History, University of New Mexico, spring 2000. Besides her lecture, she additionally participated in a smaller art history class discussion on her own work and on other Native American photographers. I am attributing comments to the artist based on my notes from this class presentation. Lucy Lippard, ‘Independent Identities’, opcit, p 145. Theresa Harlan, ‘As in Her Vision’, op cit, p 117. Laurence Hauptman, The Iroquois and the New Deal, Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, New York, 1981, pp 146–54; Carol Cornelius, Oneida/Mahican, Iroquois Corn In a Culture‐Based Curriculum, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1999, pp 164–7; Sylvia Kasprycki, ed, Irokesen Art/Iroquois Art: Visual Expressions of Contemporary Native American Artists, exhibition catalogue, Altenstadt, Germany, European Review of Native American Studies, 1998, p 89. Class discussion with the artist, a graduate seminar on Modern Native American Art, Department of Art and Art History, University of New Mexico, 6 March 2000. Michelle Dean Stock, ‘Traditional Roles of Iroquois Women’, in Iroquois Voices, Iroquois Visions: A Celebration of Contemporary Six Nations Arts, ed Bertha Rogers, Treadwell, Bright Hill Press, New York, 1996, p111. Maori scholar Linda Tuhiwai Smith used Fanon’s insights, among those of other theorists, on Africans and African‐Americans to outline the theoretical dilemmas facing indigenous peoples as they approach issues of colonialism and writing history in her recent book Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, Zed Books, New York, 1999. This book is now being used by many Native Americans and First Nations Peoples, including Rickard herself, to confront the relationships in their communities between colonialism, identity, and knowledge. Jolene Rickard, ‘Cew Ete Haw I Tih: The Bird That Carries Language Back to Another’, in Partial Recall, ed Lucy Lippard, New Press, New York, 1992, p109. Ibid, p 110. Ruth Phillips, Trading Identities: The Souvenir in Native North American Art from the Northeast, 1700–1900, Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1998, p 32. Theresa Harlan, ‘As in Her Vision’, op cit, pp 114–15. Class discussion, op cit. Ibid. Nora Noranjo‐Morse, ‘Pearline’, in Mud Woman: Poems from the Clay, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1992. Beverly Gordon, The Niagara Falls Whimsey: The Object as a Symbol of Cultural Interface, PhD Dissertation, University of Wisconsin – Madison, 1984, p 266. Ibid, p 223. Ibid, p 230. Ibid, p 308. Jolene Rickard, ‘Cew Ete Haw I Tih’, op cit, p 109. Ibid, p 108. Diane Neumaier, ed, Reframings: New American Feminist Photographies, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1995. This reading is counter to that of Native critic Paul Chaat‐Smith whose essay for the Reservation X catalogue confidently asserts that Rickard’s installation is a Longhouse and represents a ‘Tuscaroran community, surrounded by powerful dams and electrical generating stations, and its fight for cultural survival’. Paul Chaat‐Smith, ‘Unplugging the Hologram’, in Reservation X, ed Gerald McMaster, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1998, p 125. Edmund Wilson, Apologies to the Iroquois, Farrer, Straus and Cudahy, New York, 1959, pp 145–6. Susan Prezzano, ‘Warfare, Women, and Households: The Development of Iroquois Culture’, in Women in Prehistory: North America and Mesoamerica, eds Cheryl Claasen and Rosemary A Joyce, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1997, p 20.

What Matters in Art History

introductory course, but we have heard from colleagues that IVC veterans have drawn usefully upon their experience in our course and have done well in subsequent art history classes. (This softens the blow of the dispiriting reports that a handful of our IVC students were soured on art history for good by the course.) We will continue to monitor student responses to IVC and to the larger sequence of which it is the keystone as we try to sharpen and improve the courses over the years to come. We shall welcome criticisms and responses from Art Journal readers.

Neolithic Art and the Art History Class

Using Neolithic art as a case in point, this paper suggests some of the issues which might be raised in the study of art from a critical-theory perspective. Information from archaeology as well as ...

Novice Strategies for Understanding Paintings

AbstractVisual analysis is taught in art history classes as a skill which aids a student in understanding a work of art in its appropriate conceptual or historical context. To provide a foundation for the design of computer‐based lessons to train students in the skill, this study attempted to discover the strategies that novices employ when viewing a set of paintings. Verbal protocols obtained from novices in this study indicated that they described semantic features, or content, of paintings more than the formal elements, e. g. line, colour, shape, when viewing realist paintings. However, when presented with abstract, i. e. less semantically accessible paintings, novices shaply altered their approach and discussed formal elements over content. These findings suggest that an analysis of formal elements is not performed by a novice when a painting depicts a clear subject, but is attempted when the subject‐matter becomes obscure. This implies that, at some level, novices realize that the meaning of a painting can be extracted from attention to the formal elements. Interestingly, novice protocols contained the same categories of strategies deemed important by experts. The lack of training in visual analysis was not notably manifest with respect to style. Of all formal dimensions, this one yielded the greatest discrepancy between novices and the expectations of instructors.