Arrow Poison Research Articles

Investigate the Relationship between the Crime of Insulting Religious Sanctities and the Right to Freedom of Speech in Iranian Law and International Human Rights

Insulting religious beliefs and sanctities in some cases will intersect with freedom of speech. In this case, offenders have raided religious beliefs of other people under the guise of freedom of speech and insult them by poisoned arrows. While opponents thinkthis is the right while opponents think, this is the right which can be limited and undoubtedly insulting religious sanctities and religious beliefs, is considered as the boundary for this human right. Way of boundaries between these two challenging concepts is the foundation of this study that leads to preventation of spearding the freedom of speech to make insulting and not so much that sanctities circle and religious beliefs can be extended that no place for free speech and thinking and criticism can be remained. This study investigate the relationship between the crime of insulting religious sanctities and freedom of speech in Iranian law and international instruments on human rights using descriptive and analytical methods.

Poison arrows and bone utensils in late Pleistocene eastern Africa: evidence from Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar

ABSTRACTMost of our current knowledge of late Pleistocene African bone technology is drawn from southern African sites, with recent discoveries indicating that bone- and stone-tipped arrows (propelled by a bow) were in use prior to 60,000 years BP. Integration of archaeological with ethnographic data similarly suggests that hunting with poison-tipped arrows on the African continent has an antiquity of at least 24,000 years. Unfortunately, similar analysis of material from eastern Africa is largely absent and consequently, with the sole exception of barbed points, we know very little regarding osseous technology in this region and how similar or dissimilar it is to contexts located further south. This paper presents a small assemblage of seven bone artefacts recovered from the late Pleistocene deposits of Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar. Comparison of the bone projectile points, a bone awl and a notched bone tube with ethnographic and archaeological material from throughout the Sub-Saharan region suggests that, as elsewhere in Africa, bone technology was a central element in the Later Stone Age material culture repertoire of Kuumbi Cave’s inhabitants. It also suggests that arrow points coated with poison were in use in eastern Africa around 13,000 years BP.

Calotropis gigantea

Calotropis gigantea

Beetle and plant arrow poisons of the Ju|'hoan and Hai||om San peoples of Namibia (Insecta, Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae; Plantae, Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, Burseraceae).

The use of archery to hunt appears relatively late in human history. It is poorly understood but the application of poisons to arrows to increase lethality must have occurred shortly after developing bow hunting methods; these early multi-stage transitions represent cognitive shifts in human evolution. This paper is a synthesis of widely-scattered literature in anthropology, entomology, and chemistry, dealing with San (“Bushmen”) arrow poisons. The term San (or Khoisan) covers many indigenous groups using so-called ‘click languages’ in southern Africa. Beetles are used for arrow poison by at least eight San groups and one non-San group. Fieldwork and interviews with Ju|’hoan and Hai||om hunters in Namibia revealed major differences in the nature and preparation of arrow poisons, bow and arrow construction, and poison antidote. Ju|’hoan hunters use leaf-beetle larvae of Diamphidia Gerstaecker and Polyclada Chevrolat (Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae: Alticini) collected from soil around the host plants Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl. and Commiphora angolensis Engl. (Burseracaeae). In the Nyae Nyae area of Namibia, Ju|’hoan hunters use larvae of Diamphidia nigroornata Ståhl. Larvae and adults live above-ground on the plants and eat leaves, but the San collect the underground cocoons to extract the mature larvae. Larval hemolymph is mixed with saliva and applied to arrows. Hai||om hunters boil the milky plant sap of Adenium bohemianum Schinz (Apocynaceae) to reduce it to a thick paste that is applied to their arrows. The socio-cultural, historical, and ecological contexts of the various San groups may determine differences in the sources and preparation of poisons, bow and arrow technology, hunting behaviors, poison potency, and perhaps antidotes.

An exploration of interpersonal violence among Holocene foragers of Southern Africa

A common assertion that humans are inherently aggressive toward one another is based in part on interpretation of anthropological evidence, including observational reports of Khoesan immediate-return hunter-gatherers of southern Africa. Bioarchaeological evidence from 446 dated South African Cape Holocene skeletons representing Khoesan ancestors provides an opportunity to review approaches to interpersonal conflict over thousands of years. A synthesis of paleodemographic and skeletal information suggests a complex picture. The pattern noted among descendant Khoesan groups of male killings via poison arrows is not discernable in ancestral demography. Published reports of healed cranial trauma are not geographically localized; most are adult men, and some can be parsimoniously explained as the outcomes of accidents. Skeletons with unhealed perimortem lesions are limited to the southwestern region, at dates around 2500 years ago; most are women and children. The perimortem skeletal trauma is contemporaneous with a period during which a transitory decline in adult stature occurs throughout the Cape but not in the region with the apparent violence. This suggests a novel, transient social pattern in that community. In sum, the disparate patterns of antemortem and perimortem trauma among these Holocene foragers support a narrative that emphasizes the situational nature, and the general rarity, of interpersonal violence.

Curare Alkaloids: Constituents of a Matis Dart Poison.

A phytochemical study of dart and arrow poison from the Matis tribe led to the identification of D-(-)-quinic acid, L-malic acid, ethyldimethylamine, magnoflorine, and five new bisbenzyltetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids (BBIQAs), 1-5. D-Tubocurarine could not be identified among these products. BBIQA (3) contains a unique linkage at C-8 and C-11'. All structures were characterized by a combination of NMR and HRESIMS data. The effects of Matis poison and individual BBIQAs (1-3) on rat muscle nAChR expressed in Xenopus oocytes have been investigated using the two-electrode voltage clamp technique.

Commentary on Therapeutic Potential of Gnidia glauca: A Novel Medicinal Plant

Search of complementary and alternative medicine has gained a thrust in the recent decade due to the pronounced side effects and health hazards of the chemically synthesized drugs. Hereby, a comprehensive knowledge about the traditionally used medicinal plants is indispensable for exploration of its novel bioactive components. One of such comparatively less explored medicinal plant is Gnidia glauca. Although, it has folkloric, traditional phytomedicinal and agrochemical applications in various parts of the world, still there are no available scientific validations or evidences to support the fact. In African medicine it is used for treatment of abdominal pain, cancers, wounds, snake bites, sore throat and burns. It is also well known for its piscicidal, insecticidal, molluscicidal and even homicidal activity for its use as arrow poisons. Similarly, its antineoplasticactivity is reported to be remarkably superior. However, till date there are no comprehensive information on the plant. In view of the background, herein we present the first commentary on complete research carried out till date on G. glauca and its promises as complementary and alternative medicine.

Investigation of historical dart poisons using synchrotron based infrared microscopy and spectroscopy

Museum Victoria holds in its Indigenous Collection a number of poison darts and arrows from Southeast Asia and Africa. Synchrotron FTIR microspectroscopy was used to analyse the stained tips of three sets of small wooden darts from Southeast Asia covering three collection periods between 1873 and 1971. As part of an on-going project for the identification of hazardous substances in the collection, we wished to identify if poisons were present on these items, and if present whether they were still active and whether they pose a risk to staff working with the collection. Infrared spectra in the mid-IR region and transmission mode were recorded from small sample areas of particles recovered from each of the darts. The presence of cardiac glycoside, calcium oxalate, plant proteins and carbohydrates in the spectra have enabled us to confirm the presence of and to identify toxins on the darts.

Poison arrows and pufferfish

### Learning Point for Clinicians This report describes attempted suicide through subcutaneous injection of tetrodotoxin, ouabain and ryanodine, and while the method is highly unusual, it highlights common themes in the management of poisoning, in particular the recognition of ‘toxidromes’ and use of all available sources of information. An ambulance was called at 4:12 pm to a 20-year-old female found collapsed and in an agitated state. On initial assessment she was alert and orientated but retching. Blood pressure was 91/63 mmHg with a bradycardia of 40 bpm. A total of 500 mcg of atropine was administered. On arrival in the emergency department at 5:30 pm she remained alert with blood pressure of 104/55 mmHg and a heart rate of 60 bpm. Other observations were normal. The patient reported deliberately injecting tetrodotoxin subcutaneously into her abdominal wall at …

Poor alkaloid sequestration by arrow poison frogs of the genus Phyllobates from Costa Rica

Frogs of the genus Phyllobates from Colombia are known to contain the highly toxic alkaloid batrachotoxin, but species from Central America exhibit only very low levels or are entirely free of this toxin. In the present study alcohol extracts from 101 specimens of Phyllobates lugubris and Phyllobates vittatus and 21 of three sympatric species (Dendrobates pumilio, Dendrobates auratus, Dendrobates granuliferus) from Costa Rica were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Whereas the extracts of the Dendrobates species exhibited typical profiles of toxic alkaloids, those of the two Phyllobates species contained low levels of few alkaloids only, batrachotoxin was not detected. Although the feeding pattern of the Dendrobates and Phyllobates species are similar as revealed by examination of their stomach content (mainly ants and mites), the Phyllobates species are poorly sequestering alkaloids from their food source in contrast to the Dendrobates frogs.

Animals and Animal Toxins in Traditional and Modern Medicine

Background: Animals and animal toxins have a long-lasting tradition in diverse human cultures all over the world. In addition to medicinal plants, animals are important components of many traditional medicines. Methods: By using selected examples, we give an overview of animals, animal toxins, and derivatives to illustrate their pharmacological and therapeutic potential and use. Results: Animals have been used in traditional and modern medicines for treatment purposes. Medicinal leeches (Hirudo medicinalis) are applied for microsurgical operations and for prevention of tissue necrosis due to congestion and insufficient supply of blood capillaries. Patches of blister beetles (Cantharis vesicatoria) have been topically applied in China since centuries against warts and poxvirus-caused molluscum contagiosum. Snake venoms are a rich source for drug development. Some examples are batroxobin (reptilase) from Bothrops moujeni and B. atrox, and others. Bioactive peptides have also been identified from spider and scorpion venoms such as GsMTx-4 from the Chilean rose Tarantula (Grammostola spatulata) or chlorotoxin from the Yellow Israeli scorpion (Leiurus quinquestriatus quinquestriatus). Amphibian venoms have frequently been used as arrow poisons by indigenous tribes. The marine biodiversity is also a rich resource for new drugs. A large array of toxins can be found in sea snails. Important examples are ωconotoxin from Conus purpurascens, contukalin-G from C. geographus, and ACV1 from Review Article British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, 4(4): 578-593, 2014 579 C. victoriae. Examples among many others are aplidine from Aplidium albicans, pseudopterosin from the Pseudopterogorgia genus, and dolastatin from Dolabella auricularia. Conclusion: Animals or compounds isolated from snake, spider or scorpion venoms, frog toxins, and toxins from marine organisms reveal astonishing pharmacological activities. Cross-disciplinary approaches between organic and medicinal chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, molecular biology, and medicine are required to explore the full potential of animal toxins and their derivatives as important candidates in the drug development pipeline.

From arrow poison to neuromuscular blockers

From arrow poison to neuromuscular blockers

Fascinating organic molecules from nature

(Right) C N Sundaresan is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Chemistry at the Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Bangalore. His research interests are in synthesis of biologically active compounds, and pharmacuetical co-crystals. European explorers of the New World brought back to Europe exotic specimens of plant and animal origin. One of these was curare, the arrow poison used by the natives of the Orinoco and the Amazon river basins mainly to capture birds and animals for food. Three types of curare were known, namely tubocurare, calabash curare and pot curare. The main plant component of tubocurare was identified as the Menispermaceaeplant Chondrodendrontomentosum, whereas in calabash curare the chief ingredient was the bark of Strychnos toxifera. From tubocurare, the quaternary base, d-tubocurarine was isolated. It is a bis-benzylisoquinoline alkaloid. Calabash curare is a complex mixture of several closely related indole alkaloids.

Achilles’ death

In Greek mythology, Achilles was a hero of the Trojan War, the central character and greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad. As Achilles died because of a small wound on his heel, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a person's principal weakness. But is the human heel a really vulnerable part of our body? Could a non-poisonous arrow have caused Achilles' death? Should an arrow be necessarily poisonous in order to cause a lethal heel would? The purpose of this effort is to explain, from an anatomic point of view, how Achilles heel wounding could have led to his death. The Achilles tendon is the strongest, largest and thickest tendon in the human body and plays an important role in the biomechanics of the lower extremity. The blood supply of the tendon is from the peroneal and posterior tibial arteries. It is quite likely that the arrow which killed Achilles was poisoned. This supposition could be of course enough to cause his death. In case the arrow was not poisoned a rupture of the posterior tibial artery by the arrow could have caused a bleeding, but it seems unlikely for such a bleeding to be lethal. Moreover, a combination of these two theories could have also taken place, i.e. a poisoned arrow traumatizing the posterior tibial artery and hence causing rapid diffusion of the poison as well as bleeding. Furthermore, infectious and/or immunologic bases regarding Achilles' death could be considered. In our opinion, a poisoned arrow was probably the crucial factor leading to the famous inglorious death of this famous glorious Homeric hero.

Arrow poisons in the Palaeolithic?

In a previous issue of PNAS, d’Errico et al. (1) reported interesting findings from Border Cave in South Africa, including the presentation of a “poison applicator,” directly dated to ∼24,000 y ago. The fragmented wooden stick with perpendicular incisions appears, although smaller in diameter, not too indistinct from some poison applicators recovered in the Kalahari. Residues found on the item were studied using gas chromatography, and the authors interpreted the results as evidence for the toxin ricin. This was used to substantiate the claim that this “applicator” is direct evidence of the use of poisons in hunting.

Fascinating organic molecules from nature

From the very beginning of civilization, humans have used chemicals from Nature – most of them comparatively small organic molecules now designated as secondary metabolites – for a variety of purposes such as pigments and dyes, arrow and fish poisons and olfactory stimulants.

Make Mine Malaria

Make Mine Malaria

Secondary metabolites from the stem bark of Strychnos aff. dariensis

The genus Strychnos (Loganiaceae) is well-known as a rich source of various bioactive indole alkaloids. In continuation of our phytochemical studies on plants from Amazonia [1], we examined Strychnos aff. dariensis, collected in Peru. This species has been traditionally used in South America [2] as an arrow poison and is applied till nowadays as a drug from Yanesha tribe in Peru [3]. Extraction with EtOAc and MeOH and then treatment in different pH values, resulted to a first fractionation of the plant material. Further phytochemical investigation of this plant led to the isolation and structure elucidation by NMR and HRMS of 14 compounds that belong to the categories of phenolic acids (p-hydroxybenzoic acid and vanillic acid), flavonoids (luteolin, 3',4',7-trihydroxyflavone, 3-methoxy quercetin, strychnobiflavone and minaxin), lignans (syringaresinol-β-D-glucoside, balanophonin and ficusal) and alkaloids (venoterpine, condensamine, diaboline and 11-methoxy diaboline). The presence of the indole alkaloid 11-methoxy-diaboline as a major constituent was in accordance with the literature [4] that reports that in species of Strychnos with a relatively low percentage of alkaloids it constitutes the main component.

A poisonous surprise under the coat of the African crested rat

Plant toxins are sequestered by many animals and the toxicity is frequently advertised by aposematic displays to deter potential predators. Such 'unpalatability by appropriation' is common in many invertebrate groups and also found in a few vertebrate groups. However, potentially lethal toxicity by acquisition has so far never been reported for a placental mammal. Here, we describe complex morphological structures and behaviours whereby the African crested rat, Lophiomys imhausi, acquires, dispenses and advertises deterrent toxin. Roots and bark of Acokanthera schimperi (Apocynaceae) trees are gnawed, masticated and slavered onto highly specialized hairs that wick up the compound, to be delivered whenever the animal is bitten or mouthed by a predator. The poison is a cardenolide, closely resembling ouabain, one of the active components in a traditional African arrow poison long celebrated for its power to kill elephants.

The Honey, The Poison, The Weapon

The Honey, The Poison, The Weapon