Arrow Poison Research Articles

Hunting with poisoned arrows during the Terminal Pleistocene in Northern Europe? A tip cross-sectional area assessment and list of potential arrow poison ingredients

The lithic projectile points of the Late Upper Palaeolithic (∼14.7–11.7 ka BP) in Northern Europe display a marked variation in size and design. The small tanged points characteristic of the latest phase in the sequence can be directly associated with finds of arrow-shafts and bow fragments, benchmarking the presence of archery. In the absence of such organic evidence during the older phases, size differences between tip designs may be used, with reference to ballistic principles, to derive hypotheses about ancient weapon systems. By calculating tip cross-sectional area values for a large sample of shouldered, backed, and tanged points from sites across the Northern Europe, we here explore likely changes in weapon use through time. In this context we specifically investigate the likelihood of the smallest of these tips as having been used with poison to increase hunting success. Our results show that: (i) bow-and-arrow technology most likely was in use already during the earliest phases of human occupation in the region; (ii) later on, different weapon systems equipped with different tip designs were used in parallel; and (iii) the smallest of lithic armatures align well with ethnographically documented poisoned arrows. To assist with future studies in the use of arrow poisons in Europe, we provide a list of potential poison sources, where they are currently distributed in the context of our study area.

The Ethnobotany of Amazon Indians: a Rapidly Disappearing Source of botanical Knowledge for Human Welfare

The Amazon Indians are a rich source of botanical information. Some 200 tribes each have their own unique botany with many different plant recipes for their common needs e.g. arrow poisons, narcotics, food and fibers. Examples from several tribes are given of the variety of arrow poisons, fish poisons and hallucinogenic drugs which arc used in Amazonia. The Indians have had thousands of years of management of the Amazon ecosystem. However, the rate of acculturation and extinction of tribes is accelerating-even faster than the 90 tribes which have gone extinct in the 20th Century. Information of great potential use to human welfare about unexploited plants and management of the forest ecosystem is rapidly becoming lost. A review is given of this destruction of the Indians and their forest and habitat and it is suggested that there is an urgent need to study these people and for biologists to be active in the efforts which are being made to protect the Amazon Indians.

The tip protein PAAR is required for the function of the type VI secretion system.

Bacteria are constantly competing to colonize crowded ecological niches, such as the human gut. The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is a critical bacterial weapon in this warfare. It resembles a crossbow with a poisoned arrow allowing bacteria to inject toxic effectors directly into target cells. This machinery is formed by an envelope-spanning complex which recruits the baseplate, an assembly platform allowing the polymerization of a contractile structure. The tail consists of a tube surrounded by a sheath and topped by the needle complex composed of the VgrG and PAAR proteins. In the enteric pathogen enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAEC), the Tle1 phospholipase toxin ensures the antibacterial activity of the T6SS-1. For its transport, Tle1 interacts directly with the trimeric spike protein VgrG. However, the importance and the function of the tip protein PAAR in the T6SS remain unclear. Here, we characterized the PAAR protein of EAEC using biochemical, fluorescence microscopy, and antibacterial competition approaches. Using pull-down assays and cryo-electron microscopy analysis of the (VgrG)3-(Tle1)3-PAAR complex, we show that PAAR tops and closes the β-prism structure of the VgrG spike. The PAAR protein structure is further tightened by the zinc atom coordinated via conserved residues essential for its function. We provide evidence that PAAR is necessary for T6SS-1-mediated killing due to its requirement for proper T6SS baseplate assembly and further sheath polymerization. Our results suggest that the PAAR protein is an essential component of T6SS. IMPORTANCE The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is a bacterial contractile injection system involved in bacterial competition by the delivery of antibacterial toxins. The T6SS consists of an envelope-spanning complex that recruits the baseplate, allowing the polymerization of a contractile tail structure. The tail is a tube wrapped by a sheath and topped by the tip of the system, the VgrG spike/PAAR complex. Effectors loaded onto the puncturing tip or into the tube are propelled in the target cells upon sheath contraction. The PAAR protein tips and sharpens the VgrG spike. However, the importance and the function of this protein remain unclear. Here, we provide evidence for association of PAAR at the tip of the VgrG spike. We also found that the PAAR protein is a T6SS critical component required for baseplate and sheath assembly.

„Quae tibi quaerebam (…) dona Tomitanus mittere posset ager” – o pewnym podarunku znad Pontu (Wokół „Ex Ponto” III 8)

Among the topics discussed by Ovid in Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto, there is also the topic of gifts. The poet plays the role of both the recipient and the person who can give something to his addressees. In the vast majority of cases, the gifts mentioned are not specific objects, but have an intangible value: the poet perceives the life left to him in terms of a gift, as well as the memory and consolation shown to him by his relatives. He himself wishes to repay the favours received and promises his correspondents eternal fame by including their names in his songs. The Ex Ponto III 8 elegy is unique in this topic. First, Naso notifies the addressee about a material gift sent to him, and secondly, the very gift he decided to offer to his friend is remarkable: a quiver filled with poisoned arrows. Such a gift also played a double role: on the one hand, it reflected the conditions in which the poet found himself, it was, according to his message, the only thing that could be found in Tomis and sent to Rome; on the other hand, it was to serve the recipient to defend himself against his personal enemies. The source texts testify that the arrows dipped in a specific poison were used by the Scythians. The frequency and nature of the mention of this doubly dangerous weapon in both collections of Ovid’s exile poetry, and finally the decision to make it the only material gift sent to the capital, prompted the author of this text to propose a thesis about Ovid’s peculiar fascination with Scythian poisoned arrows.

Exploring Traditional Uses, Phytochemical Composition, and Antimicrobial Potential of Latex-Producing Plants in the Euphorbia Genus: A Comprehensive Review

The Euphorbia genus, ranking as the third largest among angiosperm plants, encompasses nearly 2026 species. The latex derived from these plants contains irritants to the skin and finds application in wart removal. Additionally, it serves as a source for crafting fish and arrow poisons. Literature substantiates the utilization of these plants in the treatment of diverse ailments including menstrual issues, diarrhea, colds, fevers, as well as an array of skin conditions such as warts, sores, boils, dermatitis, psoriasis, eczema, and sunburn. Moreover, they contribute to wound healing. Certain species within the Euphorbia genus, classified under Euphorbiaceae, exhibit properties as anti-herpetic and antitumor agents against polio, rhinoviruses, and coxsackievirus. In the realm of Ayurveda, specific plant latex from select species is employed in the preparation of surgical threads for Kshara sutra therapy. This Ayurvedic approach serves as a minimally invasive para-surgical procedure in the management of anorectal piles or fistula. Remarkably, various di- and tri-terpenes obtained from the latex exhibit robust antimicrobial activity against both bacterial and fungal strains. Moreover, the di-terpenoids sourced from Euphorbia species display anti-inflammatory properties along with noteworthy cytotoxic and anticancer activities. The focal objective of this review is to present a contemporary overview encompassing traditional applications, phytochemical constituents, and the antimicrobial potential of ten latex-producing plants within the Euphorbia genus.

Potential biomarkers for southern African hunter-gatherer arrow poisons applied to ethno-historical and archaeological samples

The detection of complex poison recipes applied to ancient hunting weapons has the potential to provide important insights into traditional pharmacological knowledge systems. Yet, recipes comprising many ingredients can be challenging to decipher, especially in older samples that have undergone biodegradation. We present the results of our attempt to analyze samples of poison collected from nineteenth and twentieth century arrowheads from southern Africa, and from a 1000-year-old archaeological bone point. The arrow poison residues and reference samples were analyzed by Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR FTIR) and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). The ATR FTIR analysis is primarily able to separate between different arrow poison binder recipes. The extractives identified by GC–MS analysis consist of a multitude of components from both binders and active substances, confirming and adding to the results from the ATR FTIR analyses. We discuss the results in terms of potential biomarkers for arrow poisons in organic residue analyses of archaeological artefacts; that residues of toxic cardiotonic glycosides can be detected on curated and excavated arrow tips of between about 1000 and 100 years old, serves as proof of concept for working with older materials in the future.

Cytostatic and cytotoxic effects of a hot water and methanol extract of Acokanthera oppositifolia in HepG2 hepatocarcinoma cells

Ethnopharmacological relevanceHerb-induced liver injury is poorly described for African herbal remedies, such as Acokanthera oppositifolia. Although a commonly used treatment for pain, snake bites and anthrax, it is also a well-known arrow poison, thus toxicity is to be expected. Aim of the studyThe cytotoxicity and preliminary mechanisms of toxicity in HepG2 hepatocarcinoma cells were assessed. Materials and methodsThe effect of hot water and methanol extracts were on cell density, oxidative status, mitochondrial membrane potential, fatty acids, caspase-3/7 activity, adenosine triphosphate levels, cell cycling and viability was assessed. Phytochemicals were tentatively identified using ultra-performance liquid chromatography. ResultsThe hot water extract displayed an IC50 of 24.26 μg/mL, and reduced proliferation (S- and G2/M-phase arrest) and viability (by 30.71%) as early as 24 h after incubation. The methanol extract had a comparable IC50 of 26.16 μg/mL, and arrested cells in the G2/M-phase (by 18.87%) and induced necrosis (by 13.21%). The hot water and methanol extracts depolarised the mitochondrial membrane (up to 0.84- and 0.74-fold), though did not generate reactive oxygen species. The hot water and methanol extracts decreased glutathione (0.42- and 0.62-fold) and adenosine triphosphate (0.08- and 0.26-fold) levels, while fatty acids (2.00- and 4.61-fold) and caspase-3/7 activity (1.98- and 5.82-fold) were increased. ConclusionExtracts were both cytostatic and cytotoxic in HepG2 cells. Mitochondrial toxicity was evident and contributed to reducing adenosine triphosphate production and fatty acid accumulation. Altered redox status perturbed proliferation and promoted necrosis. Extracts of A. oppositifolia may thus promote necrotic cell death, which poses a risk for inflammatory hepatotoxicity with associated steatosis.

War-Canoes and Poisoned Arrows

Abstract The paper examines the repulse of fifteenth century Portuguese slave raids in the Senegambia by the armed forces of the empires of Great Jolof and Imperial Mali, within the context of the ongoing Military Revolution debate and with an emphasis on the military organization and weaponry deployed by both sides. Despite the claims of some historians about early European advantages in naval warfare, any such superiority on the part of the European vessels was not demonstrated in these encounters, with the war-canoes and poisoned arrows of the Jolof and Malian marines proving highly effective against the caravels, cannons, and crossbows of the Portuguese sailors. The African militaries of the Senegambia region were well-organized, well-disciplined, and more than capable of defeating European marauders. If Europeans did develop notable military advantages over West Africans in the sixteenth century, they had not yet begun to do so in the fifteenth.

Orb-web spider Argiope (Araneidae) as indigenous arrow poison of G/ui and G//ana San hunters in the Kalahari.

Hunting has been crucial in early human evolution. Some San (Bushmen) of southern Africa still practice their indigenous hunting. The use of poisons is one remarkable aspect of their bow-and-arrow hunting but the sources, taxonomic identifications of species used, and recipes, are not well documented. This study reports on fieldwork to investigate recent indigenous hunting practices of G/ui and G//ana San communities in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR), Botswana. Here we discuss their use of spider poison. The hunters use the contents of the opisthosoma ('abdomen') of a spider as sole ingredient of the arrow poison and discard the prosoma that contains the venom-glands. Using taxonomic keys, we identified the spider as the garden orb-web spider Argiope australis (Walckenaer 1805) (Araneidae). The hunters' choice of this species is remarkable given the scientific perception that A. australis is of little medical importance. The species choice raises questions about how the spider fluids could kill game, particularly when the prosoma, which contains the venom glands, is not used. Possibilities include trauma, as a source of pathogens, or abdomen-containing toxins. Based on characteristics of Argiope Audouin 1826, we hypothesize that the choice of this species for arrow poisons might have evolved from the recognition of aposematic signalling or spiritual symbolism. Indigenous knowledge (IK) is an important source for advances in biotechnology but is in decline worldwide. The study contributes to the documentation of the San people, and their ancient IK, which is threatened by marginalization, political pressures, and climate change.

Phylogenetic analyses of Chilomastix and Retortamonas species using in vitro excysted flagellates.

In vitro excystation of cysts of microscopically identified Chilomastix mesnili and Retortamonas sp. isolated from Japanese macaques and Retortamonas sp. isolated from small Indian mongooses could be induced using an established protocol for Giardia intestinalis and subsequently by culturing with H2S-rich Robinson's medium supplemented with Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. Excystation usually began 2 h after incubation in Robinson's medium. DNA was isolated from excysted flagellates after 4 h of incubation or from cultured excysted flagellates. Phylogenetic analysis based on their 18S rRNA genes revealed that two isolates of C. mesnili from Japanese macaques belonged to the same cluster as a C. mesnili isolate from humans, whereas a mammalian Retortamonas sp. isolate from a small Indian mongoose belonged to the same cluster as that of an amphibian Retortamonas spp. isolate from a 'poison arrow frog' [sequence identity to AF439347 (94.9%)]. These results suggest that the sequence homology of the 18S rRNA gene of the two C. mesnili isolates from Japanese macaques was similar to that of humans, in addition to the morphological similarity, and Retortamonas sp. infection of the amphibian type in the small Indian mongoose highlighted the possibility of the effect of host feeding habitats.

The Tip Cross-sectional Area (TCSA) Method Strengthened and Constrained with Ethno-historical Material from Sub-Saharan Africa

Work on large samples of southern African archaeological lithics, probably used to tip hunting weapons amongst other things, and ethno-historical bone and iron weapon tips of known use exposed limitations in the tip cross-sectional area (TCSA) method’s robustness for hypothesising about variation in ancient weapon-delivery systems. Here, we list some of the limitations and discuss a few recently published improvements in tip cross-sectional area ranges and data presentation. Our main contribution is the meaningful enlargement of datasets obtained from hafted weapon tips and/or weapon tips of known use mostly from sub-Saharan Africa. We briefly discuss why this region is relevant for studying trends in the evolution and development of hunting weapons. Our new data are used to strengthen and constrain the different TCSA ranges used as proxies for poisoned arrow tips, un-poisoned arrow tips, javelin tips, stabbing-spear tips, and to suggest a working TCSA range for thrusting-spear tips. We demonstrate that the calibrated TCSA ranges have robust statistical integrity as proxies for the different weapon-delivery systems they represent. Apart from the dart-tip category, the TCSA method has now been improved to accommodate more nuanced and accurate interpretations, while further strengthening hypothesis building about ancient weapon systems.

Bridelia ferruginea Benth.; An ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological review

Ethnopharmacological relevanceBridelia ferruginea belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, identified as an important commonly growing shrub, is used in traditional medicine for managing arthritis, dysentery, constipation, chronic diabetes, skin diseases, bladder and intestinal disorders, oral infections, thrush, bites and as an arrow poison antidote. This review aims at providing information on the traditional medicinal uses, pharmacological activities, phytochemistry and toxicity studies of Bridelia ferruginea to bridge the gap between traditional medicinal uses and preclinical studies on B. ferruginea and subsequently lead to the development of valued added medicines from B. ferruginea. Materials and methodsData in this review were compiled using databases such as Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, Springer link, Elsevier and Taylor and Francis, articles from peer reviewed journals and other grey literature (short notes, book chapters, short communications) to access all the relevant information available on B. ferruginea. ResultsB. ferruginea contains different phytochemicals including flavonoids, phenolics, phytosterols, triterpenes, saponins, alkaloids and cardiac glycosides. Gallocatechin-(4′-O-7)-epigallocatechin, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1,3,4,5-tetracaffeoylquinic acid and some derivatives of 3-methoxyflavone, such as quercetin-3-methyl ether, quercetin 3-,7,3′,4′-tetramethyl ether, myricetin 3′,4′,5′-trimethyl ether, myricetin 3,3′,4′,5′-tetramethyl ether, myricetin and quercetin 3-O-glucoside specific flavonoids and biflavonoids like apigenin, kaempferol and glycosides of both have been isolated and further characterized from B. ferruginea. B. ferruginea has several pharmacologically beneficial properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-infective, antipyretic, analgesic, diuretic and natriuretic activities. ConclusionThe wide distribution, traditional medicinal uses and wealth of phytochemicals present in B. ferruginea suggests that the plant can be useful in lead compound discovery. Although B. ferruginea has been widely studied, further studies on the mechanism of action, bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and side effects in humans need to be investigated.

Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: How Tumor Cells Defend Against the Siege Weapons of Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes.

CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are the main cellular effectors of the adaptive immune response against cancer cells, which in turn have evolved sophisticated cellular defense mechanisms to withstand CTL attack. Herein we provide a critical review of the pertinent literature on early and late attack/defense events taking place at the CTL/target cell lytic synapse. We examine the earliest steps of CTL-mediated cytotoxicity (“the poison arrows”) elicited within seconds of CTL/target cell encounter, which face commensurately rapid synaptic repair mechanisms on the tumor cell side, providing the first formidable barrier to CTL attack. We examine how breach of this first defensive barrier unleashes the inextinguishable “Greek fire” in the form of granzymes whose broad cytotoxic potential is linked to activation of cell death executioners, injury of vital organelles, and destruction of intracellular homeostasis. Herein tumor cells deploy slower but no less sophisticated defensive mechanisms in the form of enhanced autophagy, increased reparative capacity, and dysregulation of cell death pathways. We discuss how the newly discovered supra-molecular attack particles (SMAPs, the “scorpion bombs”), seek to overcome the robust defensive mechanisms that confer tumor cell resistance. Finally, we discuss the implications of the aforementioned attack/defense mechanisms on the induction of regulated cell death (RCD), and how different contemporary RCD modalities (including apoptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis) may have profound implications for immunotherapy. Thus, we propose that understanding and targeting multiple steps of the attack/defense process will be instrumental to enhance the efficacy of CTL anti-tumor activity and meet the outstanding challenges in clinical immunotherapy.

Structural mechanism of muscle nicotinic receptor desensitization and block by curare.

Binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to its receptors on muscle fibers depolarizes the membrane and thereby triggers muscle contraction. We sought to understand at the level of three-dimensional structure how agonists and antagonists alter nicotinic acetylcholine receptor conformation. We used the muscle-type receptor from the Torpedo ray to first define the structure of the receptor in a resting, activatable state. We then determined the receptor structure bound to the agonist carbachol, which stabilizes an asymmetric, closed channel desensitized state. We find conformational changes in a peripheral membrane helix are tied to recovery from desensitization. To probe mechanisms of antagonism, we obtained receptor structures with the active component of curare, a poison arrow toxin and precursor to modern muscle relaxants. d-Tubocurarine stabilizes the receptor in a desensitized-like state in the presence and absence of agonist. These findings define the transitions between resting and desensitized states and reveal divergent means by which antagonists block channel activity of the muscle-type nicotinic receptor.

The possible poisons contained in the arrow that killed Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan's maritime expedition that resulted in the circumnavigation of the Earth and the discovery of the strait that bears his name is among the greatest feats in history. The trip, which took more than three years, was not completed by Magellan, who died on the island of Mactan, Philippines in a scuffle with the locals. As reported in Magellan's voyage journal written by Pigafetta, Magellan died after receiving a poisoned arrow in his right leg. This study reviews the main compounds used by indigenous from the Philippines and Southeast Asian to poison their arrows, their agents, and effects. These poisons are mainly derived from Aconitum and other species, such as Strychnos, Lophopetalum, Beaumontia, and Strophanthus. They contain cardiac alkaloids and glycosides, which can produce neurological and cardiac effects in just a few minutes. We argue that these toxic effects hindered the withdrawal of Magellan from the beach, facilitating his death in hands of the locals.

Exploring arrow poisons from Windvogel’s Country, Eastern Cape, South Africa: a discussion between Piet Windvogel and William Atherstone on 6 February 1846

ABSTRACT Some 170 years ago Piet Windvogel told William Atherstone about two plant-based arrow poisons prepared and used by Khoe-San living west of the Great Kei River in the modern-day Eastern Cape interior of South Africa. Atherstone’s interest in botany and in indigenous knowledge of local plant species fed into colonial intellectual networks, as well as imperialist concerns with scientific and/or economic profit. Yet his diarised record of Windvogel’s accounts has prompted us to compile a list of potential arrow poisons for a region where such ethnohistorical information is comparatively sparse. We have narrowed these down to the most likely botanical species used in Windvogel’s poison recipes: Prunus africana or rooistinkhout for the manufacture of t’ghee poison and perhaps Euphorbia mauritanica or gifmelkbos for taah poison, although species such as Acokanthera oppositifolia or gifboom, Asclepias fruticosa or melkbos and Carissa macrocarpa or the grootnoem-noem also merit consideration.

A REVIEW ON ENZYME INHIBITORS

Enzymes play very important role in living organism as biocatalyst. They play vital role like secretion, metabolism, digestion, DNA functions, reproduction, conversation of molecules and many other functions of body. By inhibiting specific enzymes, we can cure numerous pathological conditions in humans like inhibiting HMG CoA reductase, we can decrease cholesterol synthesis which is very useful in atherosclerosis and also use for heart diseases. ACE inhibitors can reduce concentration of Angiotensin II and use to reduce blood pressure. Many of them use as pesticides and herbicides in agriculture field. The history says enzyme inhibitors are use as arrow poison and use to kill animals by developing paralysis in them. Using a digital technology scientist identified number of enzymes and their functions as well as their 3D structure. We can easily design their inhibitors and use as medicine to treat pathological conditions. So, enzyme inhibitors became first choice for medicinal chemist and scientist as a target and play extremely important role in future as medicinal compounds and became a safe option compared to other available options.

One-Step Synthesis of the 1-Azaspiro[5.5]undecane Skeleton Characteristic of Histrionicotoxin Alkaloids from Linear Substrates via Hg(OTf)2 -Catalyzed Cycloisomerization.

Histrionicotoxin (HTX) alkaloids isolated from the poison arrow frogs possess a unique structure characterized by a 1-azaspiro[5.5]undecane skeleton common to the HTX family. The unique molecular architecture of HTXs and the interest as potential target drugs have prompted synthetic chemists to promote the total synthesis so far. However, all of the synthetic strategies to access the 1-azaspiro[5.5]undecane framework of HTXs take a multistep approach from linear starting materials due to stepwise construction of either six-membered carbo- or azacycle. Herein, we report the direct one-step construction of the 1-azaspiro[5.5]undecane skeleton from linear amino ynone substrates bearing an N-methoxycarbonyl group utilizing our mercuric triflate (Hg(OTf)2 )-catalyzed cycloisomerization reaction. The utility of this novel methodology was demonstrated by the total and formal syntheses of HTX-235A and HTX-283A, respectively, from the azaspirocycle.

A Tangy Twist Review on Hog-Plum: <i>Spondias pinnata</i> (L.f.) Kurz

<em>Spondias pinnata</em> (L.f.) Kurz., belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, generally referred to as Indian Hog plum, a deciduous, glabrous tree with a healthy fruit to eat. Hog plum is a mild deciduous tree plant of high nutritional value, stubby calories and abundant in vegetable proteins, zinc, chitin, starch, vitamins and minerals. Traditional use of various parts of <em>S. pinnata</em> includes diarrhea, dysentery, stomach troubles, hyperacidity, wounds, sprain, rheumatism, gonorrhoea, tuberculosis, aphrodisiac, arrow poison antidote, dyspepsia, dysentery, ring worms, abscess painful joints, refrigerant, tonic, antiseptic, astringent, mental disorders, tuberculosis, vomiting and many more. A number of pharmacological activities were reported from several extracts of <em>S. pinnata</em> and its parts that include hypoglycemic, anti-cancer, ulcer-protective, antidiarrhoeal, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, thrombolytic, anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, analgesic, antipyretic, antihypertensive, anthelmintic, diuretic and laxative, anti-tuberculosis, cytotoxic, antioxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic, ischemia reperfusion injury and preconditioning of heart, anxiolytic, reduce side effects of chemotherapy, ameliorating, platelet aggregation inhibitory activity and acute and sub-chronic toxicity. A few phytochemicals were detailed on this plant. The chemical components of <em>S. pinnata</em> include different amino acids, carbohydrates, terpenoids, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and so on. Various solvent extract and their gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis have confirmed the structures of a number of important phytoconstituents. Hence this review can be a good reference for researchers who would undertake further investigation about <em>S. pinnata</em>.

Antioxidant and Ethnobotanical Study of Strychnos icaja Baillon (Loganiaceae) from Gabon

Aim: In plants, are found large amount of vitamin (A, B, C, E), mineral (Zn, Cu, Se) and biochemical (glutathione, taurine, phenol acids) substances which also have a well-known antioxidant power. These substances have phytotheraptic applications in the fight against aging caused by oxidative stress and are oxidative component of acute pathologies: (infectious, traumatic, inflammatory and allergic). Strychnos icaja Baillon (Loganiaceae) is a tropical shrub common in the tropical forest of Central Africa. Strychnos species is mainly used by the local population as an arrow or ordeal poison, for treatment of haemorrhoids and malaria by the Pygmies tribes from Cameroon due to its magic-medical property. This study determined the medicinal uses of Strychnos and assessed its antioxidant potential.
 Methodology: Extracts of alkaloids, aqueous, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and butanol from Strychnos were evaluated for their antioxidant properties. An ethnobotanical survey of 20 traditional therapists was carried to obtain the medicinal uses of the root of Strychnos icaja.
 Results: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) test shows good antiradical activity. Antioxidant activity by the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) test, show that Strychnos total alkaloids of the roots have a value of 5.94 ± 0.14mmol EAA/g that is significantly close from Ascorbic acid (5.86 ± 0.51 mmol EAA/g). The results of survey of traditional therapists identified six indications of this plant, namely in the treatment of haemorrhoids, against ear infections, male urethritis, rheumatic and dental pain and sterility in women.
 Conclusion: The Strychnos icaja possesses antioxidant activity, this can find use in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.