Arousal Processes Research Articles

Testing the nightmare cognitive arousal processing model.

Posttrauma nightmares are recurring nightmares that begin after a traumatic experience. Research has only recently begun to identify variables that predict posttrauma nightmare occurrences. Research has identified presleep arousal-cognitive (PSA-C) and presleep arousal physiological (PSA-PHYS), sleep onset latency (SOL), and sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) as potential predictors of posttrauma nightmares. However, previous research includes methodological limitations, such as a lack of physiological measures and a homogeneous sample. To replicate previous findings and increase generalizability, the current study investigated predictors of nightmare occurrences in a sample of male inpatient veterans with mixed-trauma history. Participants (n = 15) completed an initial assessment battery and seven consecutive days of pre and postsleep diaries, including measures of posttrauma nightmare triggers and posttrauma nightmare occurrences. Portable objective measurements of sleep and presleep states were used to examine sleep quality and physical arousal. Analyses revealed that PSA-C and SOL both predicted posttrauma nightmare occurrences and that PSA-PHYS was significantly higher on nights when nightmares occurred. Results replicate earlier research which posits that PSA and SOL play a role in triggering the occurrence of posttrauma nightmares. It should be noted that the sample was relatively small, warranting cautious interpretation of results. However, when taken together with the findings of the replicated study, results could suggest the plausibility of therapies targeting presleep cognitions, SOL, and presleep arousal in the treatment of posttrauma nightmares. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Spectral Dynamics Prior to Motor Events Differ Between NREM Sleep Parasomnias and Healthy Sleepers.

The umbrella term "Disorders of Arousal" (DoA), encompassing sleepwalking, confusional arousals, and sleep terrors, refers to parasomnias manifesting during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, commonly thought to arise from an aberrant arousal process. While previous studies have detailed EEG changes linked to DoA episodes, it remains uncertain how these alterations differ from a physiological arousal process. This study directly compared brain activity between DoA episodes and arousals associated with physiological movements (motor arousal) in individuals with DoA and healthy sleepers. Fifty-three adult patients with DoA (25 males, 32.2±15.5years) and 33 control subjects (14 males, 31.4±11.4years) underwent one or more home-EEG recordings. A semiparametric regression model was employed to elucidate the complex relationship between EEG activity across channels, within and across different groups, including motor arousals in DoA (n=169), parasomnia episodes in DoA (n=361), and motor arousals in healthy sleepers (n=137). Parasomnia episodes and motor arousals in both groups were preceded by a diffuse increase in slow-wave activity (SWA) and beta power, and a widespread decrease in sigma power. However, motor arousals in DoA displayed lower beta and central sigma than in healthy sleepers. Within DoA patients, episodes were preceded by lower beta, frontal sigma, and higher SWA than motor arousals. Our findings suggest that the arousal process is altered in DOA patients, and that specific EEG patterns are required for DOA episodes to emerge. These insights will help guide future research into the underlying circuits and objective markers of DOA.

Social and emotional learning in the cerebellum.

The posterior cerebellum has a critical role in human social and emotional learning. Three systems and related neural networks support this cerebellar function: a biological action observation system as part of an extended sensorimotor integration network, a mentalizing system for understanding a person's mental and emotional state subserved by a mentalizing network, and a limbic network supporting core emotional (dis)pleasure and arousal processes. In this Review, I describe how these systems and networks support social and emotional learning via functional reciprocal connections initiating and terminating in the posterior cerebellum and cerebral neocortex. It is hypothesized that a major function of the posterior cerebellum is to identify and encode temporal sequences of events, which might help to fine-tune and automatize social and emotional learning. I discuss research using neuroimaging and non-invasive stimulation that provides converging evidence for this hypothesized function of cerebellar sequencing, but also other potential functional accounts of the posterior cerebellum's role in these social and emotional processes.

A dynamic link between respiration and arousal.

Viewing brain function through the lense of other physiological processes has critically added to our understanding of human cognition. Further advances though may need a closer look at the interactions between these physiological processes themselves. Here we characterise the interplay of the highly periodic, and metabolically vital respiratory process and fluctuations in arousal neuromodulation, a process classically seen as non-periodic. In data of three experiments (N = 56 / 27 / 25 women and men) we tested for covariations in respiratory and pupil size (arousal) dynamics. After substantiating a robust coupling in the largest dataset, we further show that coupling strength decreases during task performance compared with rest, and that it mirrors a decreased respiratory rate when participants take deeper breaths. Taken together, these findings suggest a stronger link between respiratory and arousal processes than previously thought. Moreover, these links imply a stronger coupling during periods of rest, and the effect of respiratory rate on the coupling suggests a driving role. As a consequence, studying the role of neuromodulatory arousal on cortical function may also need to consider respiratory influences.Significance statement We characterise the interplay of the respiratory rhythm and pupil diameter dynamics as a well-known proxy for arousal. Although we consistently find respiratory modulation of pupillary changes, they were most pronounced during periods of rest (compared to during task performance) and dependent on respiratory rate (deep vs. normal breathing).

Locus coeruleus activation 'resets' hippocampal event representations and separates adjacent memories.

Memories reflect the ebb and flow of experiences, capturing unique and meaningful events from our lives. Using a combination of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), neuromelanin imaging, and pupillometry, we show that arousal and locus coeruleus (LC) activation transform otherwise continuous experiences into distinct episodic memories. As sequences unfold, encountering a context shift, or event boundary, triggers arousal and LC processes that predict later memory separation. Boundaries furthermore promote temporal pattern separation within left hippocampal dentate gyrus, which correlates with heightened LC responses to those same transition points. We also find that a neurochemical index of prolonged LC activation correlates with diminished arousal responses at boundaries, suggesting a connection between elevated LC output and impaired event processing. These findings align with the idea that arousal processes initiate a neural and memory 'reset' in response to significant changes, constructing the very episodes that define everyday memory.

Mentalizing as a Predictor of Well-Being and Emotion Regulation: Longitudinal Evidence from a Community Sample of Young Adults.

Background: In recent years, mentalizing - the capacity to understand one's own and others' intentional mental states in social contexts - has been considered to be a protective capacity that enables adaptive processing of stress-related emotional arousal, benefits general well-being and underpins adaptive emotion regulation. Objective: Several studies using cross-sectional research designs have demonstrated the potential health-promoting effect of mentalizing in non-clinical samples. However, longitudinal evidence is scarce. The present study aimed to investigate whether mentalizing predicts well-being and emotion regulation strategies in a non-clinical sample of mainly young adults using a prospective longitudinal design. Methods: In a prospective research design, 135 participants completed questionnaires assessing well-being, psychological symptom severity and mentalizing capacity at baseline (T1). Twelve months later (T2), emotion regulation strategies (suppression and cognitive reappraisal), well-being and psychological symptom severity were assessed by self-report. The data were analyzed using multivariate linear regression analysis. Results: Impairments in mentalizing were a significant negative predictor of well-being 12months later. Furthermore, impairments in mentalizing positively predicted suppression of emotional states at T2. No association was found between deficits in mentalizing and cognitive reappraisal of emotional states over the course of 1year. Conclusion: The findings indicate that mentalizing is longitudinally associated with mental health indicators in a non-clinical adult sample. Specifically, ineffective mentalizing was associated with impaired psychological well-being and a tendency to suppress intense emotional states over a period of 1year. Future research should replicate these findings using multiple measurement timepoints to etablish causality.

C-fos induction in the choroid plexus, tanycytes and pars tuberalis is an early indicator of spontaneous arousal from torpor in a deep hibernator.

Hibernation is an extreme state of seasonal energy conservation, reducing metabolic rate to as little as 1% of the active state. During the hibernation season, many species of hibernating mammals cycle repeatedly between the active (aroused) and hibernating (torpid) states (T-A cycling), using brown adipose tissue (BAT) to drive cyclical rewarming. The regulatory mechanisms controlling this process remain undefined but are presumed to involve thermoregulatory centres in the hypothalamus. Here, we used the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus), and high-resolution monitoring of BAT, core body temperature and ventilation rate, to sample at precisely defined phases of the T-A cycle. Using c-fos as a marker of cellular activity, we show that although the dorsomedial hypothalamus is active during torpor entry, neither it nor the pre-optic area shows any significant changes during the earliest stages of spontaneous arousal. Contrastingly, in three non-neuronal sites previously linked to control of metabolic physiology over seasonal and daily time scales - the choroid plexus, pars tuberalis and third ventricle tanycytes - peak c-fos expression is seen at arousal initiation. We suggest that through their sensitivity to factors in the blood or cerebrospinal fluid, these sites may mediate metabolic feedback-based initiation of the spontaneous arousal process.

Dopamine D2-receptor neurons in nucleus accumbens regulate sevoflurane anesthesia in mice

IntroductionThe mechanism of general anesthesia remains elusive. In recent years, numerous investigations have indicated that its mode of action is closely associated with the sleep-wake pathway. As a result, this study aimed to explore the involvement of dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) expressing neurons located in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a critical nucleus governing sleep-wake regulation, in sevoflurane anesthesia.MethodsThis exploration was carried out using calcium fiber photometry and optogenetics technology, while utilizing cortical electroencephalogram (EEG), loss of righting reflex (LORR), and recovery of righting reflex (RORR) as experimental indicators.ResultsThe findings from calcium fiber photometry revealed a decrease in the activity of NAcD2R neurons during the induction phase of sevoflurane anesthesia, with subsequent recovery observed during the anesthesia’s emergence phase. Moreover, the activation of NAcD2R neurons through optogenetics technology led to a reduction in the anesthesia induction process and an extension of the arousal process in mice. Conversely, the inhibition of these neurons resulted in the opposite effect. Furthermore, the activation of NAcD2R neurons projecting into the ventral pallidum (VP) via optogenetics demonstrated a shortened induction time for mice under sevoflurane anesthesia.DiscussionIn conclusion, our research outcomes suggest that NAcD2R neurons play a promotive role in the sevoflurane general anesthesia process in mice, and their activation can reduce the induction time of anesthesia via the ventral pallidum (VP).

Ventral Tegmental Area Glutamatergic Neurons Facilitated Emergence From Isoflurane Anesthesia Involves Excitation of Lateral Septum GABA-ergic Neurons in Mice.

Ventral tegmental area (VTA) glutamatergic neurons promote wakefulness in the sleep-wake cycle; however, their roles and neural circuit mechanisms during isoflurane (ISO) anesthesia remain unclear. Fiber photometry and in vivo electrophysiology were used to observe the changes in neuronal or terminal activity during ISO anesthesia and arousal processes. Optogenetic and anesthesia behaviors were used to investigate the effects of VTA glutamatergic neurons and their projections to the lateral septum (LS) during ISO anesthesia and arousal. Anterograde and retrograde tracings were performed to identify the connections between VTA glutamatergic neurons and the LS. Population activity and firing rates of VTA glutamatergic neurons decreased during ISO anesthesia (ISO: 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.83-2.06 Spikes.s -1 vs wake: 95% CI, 3.53-7.83 Spikes.s -1 ; P =.0001; n = 34 from 4 mice). Optogenetic activation of VTA glutamatergic neurons reduced the burst-suppression ratio in electroencephalography (laser: 95% CI, 13.09%-28.76% vs pre: 95% CI, 52.85%-71.59%; P =.0009; n = 6) and facilitated emergence (ChR2: 95% CI, 343.3-388.0 seconds vs mCherry: 95% CI, 447.6-509.8 seconds; P < .0001; n = 11/12) from ISO anesthesia. VTA glutamatergic neurons monosynaptically innervated LS γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic neurons. The activity of VTA glutamatergic terminals in the LS decreased during ISO anesthesia, and optogenetic activation of the VTA glutamatergic terminals in the LS facilitated emergence from ISO anesthesia. Furthermore, optogenetic activation of VTA glutamatergic terminals increased the firing rates of LS γ-aminobutyric acid-ergic (GABAergic) neurons (laser: 95% CI, 0.85-4.03 Spikes.s -1 vs pre: 95% CI, 0.24-0.78 Spikes.s -1 ; P =.008; n = 23 from 4 mice) during ISO anesthesia. VTA glutamatergic neurons facilitated emergence from ISO anesthesia involving excitation of LS GABAergic neurons.

Understanding Focal Seizures in Adults: A Comprehensive Review.

Focal or partial seizures are a common neurological disorder affecting adults. This review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of focal seizures in adults, including their classification, clinical presentation, etiology, diagnosis, and management. This article seeks to enhance awareness and knowledge among medical professionals and the general public by exploring the latest research and clinical insights. Standard electroencephalography (EEG) and recordings in presurgical electrode depth in humans provide a clear definition of patterns similar to focal seizures. Models of animals with partial seizures and epilepsy mimic seizure patterns with comparable characteristics. However, the network factors supporting interictal spikes, as well as the start, development, and end of seizures remain obscure. According to recent research, inhibitory networks are heavily implicated at the beginning of seizures, and extracellular potassium alterations help start and maintain seizure continuation. An increase in network synchronization, which may be caused by both excitatory and inhibitory pathways, is correlated with the cessation of a partial seizure. Recent research on temporal lobe focal seizures in human and animal models leads to the hypothesis that the active blocking of subcortical arousal processes brings on unconsciousness. Brainstem, basal forebrain, and thalamic arousal networks' neuronal firing is diminished during focal limbic seizures, and cortical arousal can be recovered when subcortical arousal circuits are engaged. These results suggest that thalamic neurostimulation may be therapeutic to restore arousal and consciousness during and after seizures. Targeted subcortical stimulation may increase arousal and consciousness when current treatments cannot halt seizures, enhancing safety and psychosocial function for epileptic patients. We embark on an investigation into adult focal seizures in this thorough review that goes beyond a cursory knowledge of their clinical symptoms.

Repetitive nociceptive stimulation elicits complex behavioral changes in Hirudo: evidence of arousal and motivational adaptations.

Appropriate responses to real or potential damaging stimuli to the body (nociception) are critical to an animal's short- and long-term survival. The initial goal of this study was to examine habituation of withdrawal reflexes (whole-body and local shortening) to repeated mechanical nociceptive stimuli (needle pokes) in the medicinal leech, Hirudo verbana, and assess whether injury altered habituation to these nociceptive stimuli. While repeated needle pokes did reduce shortening in H. verbana, a second set of behavior changes was observed. Specifically, animals began to evade subsequent stimuli by either hiding their posterior sucker underneath adjacent body segments or engaging in locomotion (crawling). Animals differed in terms of how quickly they adopted evasion behaviors during repeated stimulation, exhibiting a multi-modal distribution for early, intermediate and late evaders. Prior injury had a profound effect on this transition, decreasing the time frame in which animals began to carry out evasion and increasing the magnitude of these evasion behaviors (more locomotory evasion). The data indicate the presence in Hirudo of a complex and adaptive defensive arousal process to avoid noxious stimuli that is influenced by differences in internal states, prior experience with injury of the stimulated areas, and possibly learning-based processes.

Semantic Space Theory: Data-Driven Insights Into Basic Emotions

Here we present semantic space theory and the data-driven methods it entails. Across the largest studies to date of emotion-related experience, expression, and physiology, we find that emotion is high dimensional, defined by blends of upward of 20 distinct kinds of emotions, and not reducible to low-dimensional structures and conceptual processes as assumed by constructivist accounts. Specific emotions are not separated by sharp boundaries, contrary to basic emotion theory, and include states that often blend. Emotion concepts such as “anger” are primary in the unfolding of emotional experience and emotion recognition, more so than core affect processes of valence and arousal. We conclude by outlining studies showing how these data-driven discoveries are a basis of machine-learning models that are serving larger-scale, more diverse studies of naturalistic emotional behavior.

What can the eyes tell us about atypical sexual preferences as a function of sex and age? Linking eye movements with child-related chronophilias.

Visual attention plays a central role in current theories of sexual information processing and is key to informing the use of eye-tracking techniques in the study of typical sexual preferences and more recently, in the study of atypical preferences such as pedophilia (prepubescent children) and hebephilia (pubescent children). The aim of this theoretical-empirical review is to connect the concepts of a visual attention-based model of sexual arousal processing with eye movements as indicators of atypical sexual interests, to substantiate the use of eye-tracking as a useful indirect measure of sexual preferences according to sex and age of the stimuli. Implications for research are discussed in terms of recognizing the value, scope and limitations of eye-tracking in the study of pedophilia and other chronophilias in males and females, and the generation of new hypotheses using this type of indirect measure of human sexual response.

Altered parasympathetic activity during sleep and emotionally arousing wakefulness in frequent nightmare recallers

Nightmare disorder is characterized by dysfunctional emotion regulation and poor subjective sleep quality reflected in pathophysiological features such as abnormal arousal processes and sympathetic influences. Dysfunctional parasympathetic regulation, especially before and during rapid eye movement (REM) phases, is assumed to alter heart rate (HR) and its variability (HRV) of frequent nightmare recallers (NM). We hypothesized that cardiac variability is attenuated in NMs as opposed to healthy controls (CTL) during sleep, pre-sleep wakefulness and under an emotion-evoking picture-rating task. Based on the polysomnographic recordings of 24 NM and 30 CTL participants, we examined HRV during pre-REM, REM, post-REM and slow wave sleep, separately. Additionally, electrocardiographic recordings of resting state before sleep onset and under an emotionally challenging picture-rating task were also analyzed. Applying repeated measures analysis of variance (rmANOVA), a significant difference was found in the HR of NMs and CTLs during nocturnal segments but not during resting wakefulness, suggesting autonomic dysregulation, specifically during sleep in NMs. As opposed to the HR, the HRV values were not significantly different in the rmANOVA in the two groups, implying that the extent of parasympathetic dysregulation on a trait level might depend on the severeness of dysphoric dreaming. Nonetheless, in the group comparisons, the NM group showed increased HR and reduced HRV during the emotion-evoking picture-rating task, which aimed to model the nightmare experience in the daytime, indicating disrupted emotion regulation in NMs under acute distress. In conclusion, trait-like autonomic changes during sleep and state-like autonomic responses to emotion-evoking pictures indicate parasympathetic dysregulation in NMs.

Current models of insomnia disorder: a theoretical review on the potential role of the orexinergic pathway with implications for insomnia treatment.

Insomnia disorder is considered as a stress-related disorder associated with hyperarousal, stress and emotion dysregulation and the instability of the 'flip-flop' switch system. The orexinergic system is well known for its key role in sleep and arousal processes but also in the allostatic system regulating stress and emotions and may thus be of major interest for insomnia and its treatment. Accordingly, we discuss the potential role of orexins on sleep processes, brain systems modulating stress and emotions with potential implications for insomnia pathophysiology. We reviewed available data on the effect of dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs) on sleep and brain systems modulating stress/emotions with implications for insomnia treatment. We present our findings as a narrative review. Few data in animals and humans have reported that disrupted sleep and insomnia may be related to the overactivation of orexinergic system, while some more consistent data in humans and animals reported the overactivation of orexins in response to acute stress and in stress-related disorders. Taken together these findings may let us hypothesise that an orexins overactivation may be associated with stress-related hyperarousal and the hyperactivation of arousal-promoting systems in insomnia. On the other hand, it is possible that by rebalancing orexins with DORAs we may regulate both sleep and allostatic systems, in turn, contributing to a 'switch off' of hyperarousal in insomnia. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to clarify the role of the orexin system in insomnia and to evaluate the effects of DORAs on sleep, stress and emotions regulating systems.

Antecedent mechanisms of crime

Crime has always been a topical issue in society. Because crime can cause significant damage and harm to individuals and groups, researchers have researched the antecedents of crime to reduce the crime at its source. This paper reviews previous research from individual, environmental, and social perspectives and makes suggestions for future research. At the individual level, researchers have found that the MAOA gene is associated with criminal behavior from the perspective of genetic polymorphism and that criminal behavior is hereditary; in addition, antisocial personality is closely related to crime. At the environmental level, parenting styles and traditional education in the family environment can lead to delinquency. Poor parenting styles can cause individuals to develop poor attachment patterns, leading to sexual delinquency. Community organization and order are associated with delinquency among young people at the social level. In addition, social media coverage of violent crime-related information gives stimulus to aggression leading to crime, and the researcher used information processing theory to explain this behavioral arousal process. The results of previous studies are comprehensive, but some of the results are controversial, which requires a combination of multidisciplinary and modern technological tools to strictly control the variables and thus design more rigorous experiments to produce more accurate results, which can effectively reduce the incidence of crime.

Electroencephalogram-based prediction and detection of responsiveness to noxious stimulation in critical care patients: a retrospective single-centre analysis

BackgroundMonitoring of pain and nociception in critical care patients unable to self-report pain remains a challenge, as clinical signs are neither sensitive nor specific. Available technical approaches are limited by various constraints. We investigated the electroencephalogram (EEG) for correlates that precede or coincide with behavioural nociceptive responses to noxious stimulation. MethodsIn this retrospective study, we analysed frontal EEG recordings of 64 critical care patients who were tracheally intubated and ventilated before, during, and after tracheal suctioning. We investigated EEG power bands for correlates preceding or coinciding with behavioural responses (Behavioural Pain Scale ≥7). We applied the Mann–Whitney U-test to calculate corresponding P-values. ResultsStrong behavioural responses were preceded by higher normalised power in the 2.5–5 Hz band (+17.1%; P<0.001) and lower normalised power in the 0.1–1.5 Hz band (–10.5%; P=0.029). After the intervention, strong behavioural responses were associated with higher normalised EEG power in the 2.5–5 Hz band (+16.6%; P=0.021) and lower normalised power in the 8–12 Hz band (–51.2%; P=0.037) ConclusionsWe observed correlates in EEG band power that precede and coincide with behavioural responses to noxious stimulation. Based on previous findings, some of the power bands could be linked to processing of nociception, arousal, or sedation effects. The power bands more closely related to nociception and arousal could be used to improve monitoring of nociception and to optimise analgesic management in critical care patients. Clinical trial registrationDRKS00011206.

On Becoming a Yogi Coach—Part 2

The current article aims to offer a set of yogic practices that will enable the coach to transform oneself. The previous article in this series presented a yogic perspective to examine the nature of coaching conversations. The current article elaborates on the linkages between mastery over one’s inner process of psychosomatic arousal and its expression. This article brings out several practices to arrest negative tendencies and develop qualities like self-awareness, contextual intelligence, and deep listening. These qualities enable a coach to be very sensitive to their own subtle inner movements and become capable of multidimensional presence and nurture the inner genius. The present article examines the nature of conversations through the lens of Yoga, Indic theatre and dance. Further the article elucidates practices for awakening the higher chakras. Discussion is done in understanding the psyche using the rasa (feeling qualia) concept and in developing Sakhi (friend) and SAkshi (witness/meditative) bhAva (state of mind) by using the metaphors of dance and rasa. The article further offers a framework for viewing the reality looking through the lens of the self and the other. The article provides key insights and practices for the inner transformation of a coach to develop a multidimensional presence, and thereby enable a powerful transformation for the coachee.

Resisting repeated exposure: Characteristics of pain empathy for experienced physicians

Using event-related potentials (ERPs), the present study tested whether state empathy for pain of experienced physicians could resist the influences of repeated exposure to depictions of people experiencing pain. We employed a three-phase paradigm which integrated a classical pain empathy measurement procedure and a multi-block free-view habituation procedure. In this paradigm, 18 experienced physicians with reduced empathy traits (clinical experience > 5 years) and 18 non-physician controls completed a pre-test phase of pain empathy, followed by a phase of repeated emotional exposure, and a post-test phase of pain empathy. Behavioral pain intensity rating and critical ERP components associated with pain empathy (i.e., N1, N2, and LPP) were measured and compared across participant groups, stimulus types, and experimental phases. Experienced physicians differed from controls in neural processes related to pain empathy, but their pain intensity ratings did not. Specifically, for early ERP components related to empathic arousal such as N1 and N2, we replicated and extended previous findings that physicians can inhibit these bottom-up processes of empathic arousal. In contrast, the P3 didn’t reflect a distinctive empathy process for the physicians. For the later reappraisal-related LPP component, however, we found a significant three-way interaction among participant groups, stimulus types, and experimental phases. This interaction provided the first evidence that pain empathy of experienced physicians with low empathic traits can resist repeated exposure to pain. Based on this evidence, the characteristics of pain empathy for experienced physicians and the relative adaptability of pain empathy for human beings are discussed.

Action-value processing underlies the role of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex in performance monitoring during self-regulation of affect

In this study, we merged methods from engineering control theory, machine learning, and human neuroimaging to critically test the putative role of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in goal-directed performance monitoring during an emotion regulation task. Healthy adult participants (n = 94) underwent cued-recall and re-experiencing of their responses to affective image stimuli with concurrent functional magnetic resonance imaging and psychophysiological response recording. During cued-recall/re-experiencing trials, participants engaged in explicit self-regulation of their momentary affective state to match a pre-defined affective goal state. Within these trials, neural decoding methods measured affect processing from fMRI BOLD signals across the orthogonal affective dimensions of valence and arousal. Participants’ affective brain states were independently validated via facial electromyography (valence) and electrodermal activity (arousal) responses. The decoded affective states were then used to contrast four computational models of performance monitoring (i.e., error, predicted response outcome, action-value, and conflict) by their relative abilities to explain emotion regulation task-related dACC activation. We found that the dACC most plausibly encodes action-value for both valence and arousal processing. We also confirmed that dACC activation directly encodes affective arousal and also likely encodes recruitment of attention and regulation resources. Beyond its contribution to improving our understanding of the roles that the dACC plays in emotion regulation, this study introduced a novel analytical framework through which affect processing and regulation may be functionally dissociated, thereby permitting mechanistic analysis of real-world emotion regulation strategies, e.g., distraction and reappraisal, which are widely employed in cognitive behavioral therapy to address clinical deficits in emotion regulation.