Arms Race Research Articles

Historical and legal aspect of establishment and activities of Ad Hoc PAROS (Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space) Committee

The article examines the historical and legal aspects of the establishment and activities of the Ad Hoc PAROS (Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space) Committee, which operated from 1985 to 1994 as a subsidiary body of the Conference on Disarmament. The historical prerequisites for the creation of the Ad Hoc PAROS Committee and the resolution of the UN General Assembly together with the working documents of the Conference on Disarmament related to the activities of the Committee and the areas of its work were analyzed. Key functions of the Committee included processing proposals of regional groups, holding meetings, involving experts, and developing documentation on issues related to the prevention of an arms race in outer space. Emphasis was placed on the active involvement of delegations in the development of measures to prevent an arms race in outer space, with the aim of preserving its peaceful use for future generations. It was revealed that at the meetings of the Committee, delegations proposed to strengthen the support and the existing international norms and rules; to develop new international agreements that would regulate problematic issues of outer space activity; to create measures to increase transparency and trust between states, through the creation of monitoring international agencies; to promote cooperation and partnership in outer space exploration.
 The article justifies the importance of the Committee's contribution in providing an opportunity to states, which are seeking to settle the issue of disarmament not only on Earth, but also in outer space, to put forward proposals for strengthening confidence and to resolve the issue of the legal vacuum created by the incomplete regulation of the use of outer space. The opinion was expressed that the Committee had great potential to become a permanent body of the Conference on Disarmament and, despite the lack of a negotiating mandate, received the support of states for updating existing international treaties, creating confidence-building measures. However, subsequent historical events made their adjustments, and the Committee was not renewed.

FeLIX is a restriction factor for mammalian retrovirus infection.

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are remnants of ancestral viral infections. Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is an exogenous and endogenous retrovirus in domestic cats. It is classified into several subgroups (A, B, C, D, E, and T) based on viral receptor interference properties or receptor usage. ERV-derived molecules benefit animals, conferring resistance to infectious diseases. However, the soluble protein encoded by the defective envelope (env) gene of endogenous FeLV (enFeLV) functions as a co-factor in FeLV subgroup T infections. Therefore, whether the gene emerged to facilitate viral infection is unclear. Based on the properties of ERV-derived molecules, we hypothesized that the defective env genes possess antiviral activity that would be advantageous to the host because FeLV subgroup B (FeLV-B), a recombinant virus derived from enFeLV env, is restricted to viral transmission among domestic cats. When soluble truncated Env proteins from enFeLV were tested for their inhibitory effects against enFeLV and FeLV-B, they inhibited viral infection. Notably, this antiviral machinery was extended to infection with the Gibbon ape leukemia virus, Koala retrovirus A, and Hervey pteropid gammaretrovirus. Although these viruses used feline phosphate transporter 1 (fePit1) and phosphate transporter 2 as receptors, the inhibitory mechanism involved competitive receptor binding in a fePit1-dependent manner. The shift in receptor usage might have occurred to avoid the inhibitory effect. Overall, these findings highlight the possible emergence of soluble truncated Env proteins from enFeLV as a restriction factor against retroviral infection and will help in developing host immunity and antiviral defense by controlling retroviral spread.IMPORTANCERetroviruses are unique in using reverse transcriptase to convert RNA genomes into DNA, infecting germ cells, and transmitting to offspring. Numerous ancient retroviral sequences are known as endogenous retroviruses (ERVs). The soluble Env protein derived from ERVs functions as a co-factor that assists in FeLV-T infection. However, herein, we show that the soluble Env protein exhibits antiviral activity and provides resistance to mammalian retrovirus infection through competitive receptor binding. In particular, this finding may explain why FeLV-B transmission is not observed among domestic cats. ERV-derived molecules can benefit animals in an evolutionary arms race, highlighting the double-edged-sword nature of ERVs.

AI and the decision to go to war: future risks and opportunities

ABSTRACT This short article introduces our Special Issue on ‘Anticipating the Future of War: AI, Automated Systems, and Resort-to-Force Decision Making'. We begin by stepping back and briefly commenting on the current military AI landscape. We then turn to the hitherto largely neglected prospect of AI-driven systems influencing state-level decision making on the resort to force. Although such systems already have a limited and indirect impact on decisions to initiate war, we contend that they will increasingly influence such deliberations in more direct ways – either in the context of automated self-defence or through decision-support systems that inform human deliberations. Citing the steady proliferation of AI-enabled systems in other realms of decision making, combined with the perceived need to match the capabilities of potential adversaries in what has aptly been described as an AI ‘global arms race', we argue that this development is inevitable, will likely occur in the near future, and promises to be highly consequential. After surveying four thematic ‘complications’ that we associate with this anticipated development, we preview the twelve diverse, multidisciplinary, and often provocative articles that constitute this Special Issue. Each engages with one of our four complications and addresses a significant risk or benefit of AI-driven technologies infiltrating the decision to wage war.

The antibiotic crisis: On the search for novel antibiotics and resistance mechanisms.

In the relentless battle for human health, the proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has emerged as an impending catastrophe of unprecedented magnitude, potentially driving humanity towards the brink of an unparalleled healthcare crisis. The unyielding advance of antibiotic resistance looms as the foremost threat of the 21st century in clinical, agricultural and environmental arenas. Antibiotic resistance is projected to be the genesis of the next global pandemic, with grim estimations of tens of millions of lives lost annually by 2050. Amidst this impending calamity, our capacity to unearth novel antibiotics has languished, with the past four decades marred by a disheartening 'antibiotic discovery void'. With nearly 80% of our current antibiotics originating from natural or semi-synthetic sources, our responsibility is to cast our investigative nets into uncharted ecological niches teeming with microbial strife, the so-called 'microbial oases of interactions'. Within these oases of interactions, where microorganisms intensively compete for space and nutrients, a dynamic and ever-evolving microbial 'arms race' is constantly in place. Such a continuous cycle of adaptation and counter-adaptation is a fundamental aspect of microbial ecology and evolution, as well as the secrets to unique, undiscovered antibiotics, our last bastion against the relentless tide of resistance. In this context, it is imperative to invest in research to explore the competitive realms, like the plant rhizosphere, biological soil crusts, deep sea hydrothermal vents, marine snow and the most modern plastisphere, in which competitive interactions are at the base of the microorganisms' struggle for survival and dominance in their ecosystems: identify novel antibiotic by targeting microbial oases of interactions could represent a 'missing piece of the puzzle' in our fight against antibiotic resistance.

Navigating the ethical landscape behind ChatGPT

In this commentary, we examine the key ethical concerns arising from the rapid penetration and proliferation of generative artificial intelligence (AI), with ChatGPT as a prominent case study. Our analysis is structured around four pivotal themes: the debates on plagiarism and authorship in AI-generated content; the underlying power dynamics that shape biases in AI development; the dynamic, complex relationships between humans and machines; and the growing concerns over unchecked progress and the absence of accountability in the rapidly intensifying AI “Arms Race.” Recognizing the necessity for ethical alignment in AI, yet without a clear consensus of “human interests,” gives room for further exacerbating global inequalities, we advocate for enhanced transparency and increased public involvement in AI development and deployment processes. This article underscores the importance of engaging a diverse range of voices, especially those from communities traditionally uninvolved or excluded from the dialogue on AI development. By doing so, we aim to foster a more inclusive and multidisciplinary approach to understanding and shaping the trajectory of AI technologies, ensuring that their benefits are equitably shared, and their risks carefully managed.

A Knight’s Thrust: Was the Use of a Codpiece for Protection or for Exertion of Masculinity? An Evaluation through History and its Reemergence in Modern Times

Objectives Medieval military history is marked by an evolution of armor design and protection that was driven by advances in weaponry. The codpiece was a 14th century innovation to provide a genital shield in battle but was used in civilian life as well. Our objective was to clarify whether the codpiece served as an essential component of a knight’s safe keeping or as a mere outward display of virility. Methods A comprehensive literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar. Primary historical texts, museum archives, scholarly works, popular media, documentaries, and artwork were reviewed. Results The armor used in the early Middle Ages was chain mail, which covered the neck, trunk, and upper arms and legs but failed to protect against blunt injury to the groin as weaponry became increasingly powerful. Full plate armor, developed by the 1300s, eventually included the codpiece, a small metal pouch to house the genitalia. In the late 1400s, however, codpieces appeared in civilian wear, modestly laced to men’s stockings as upper body shirts and tunics became shorter. Codpieces quickly became more ostentatious and bulkier in an ‘Arms Race’ of masculinity, were soon ridiculed in contemporary satires including works by Shakespeare and Rabelais and inspired royal edicts limiting their use. However, the codpiece was used in the management of genital disease as well, as the bulky wraps and ointments used to treat endemic syphilis were thus more easily concealed. The codpiece fell out of fashion by the late 16th century but its descendants, in sports and the performing arts, still have practical use today in genital protection and in men’s haute couture clothing design. Conclusions In the medieval battlefield, the codpiece was both protective and assertive of masculinity. Its military popularity eventually waned as armored battle proved no match for more modern weaponry, but the codpiece had a long influence on sartorial culture. The codpiece’s modern descendant, the athletic ‘cup’, has therefore a long and most unusual history in the pages of war and Renaissance clothing.

A Knight’s Thrust: Was the Use of a Codpiece for Protection or for Exertion of Masculinity? An Evaluation through History and its Reemergence in Modern Times

Objectives Medieval military history is marked by an evolution of armor design and protection that was driven by advances in weaponry. The codpiece was a 14th century innovation to provide a genital shield in battle but was used in civilian life as well. Our objective was to clarify whether the codpiece served as an essential component of a knight’s safe keeping or as a mere outward display of virility. Methods A comprehensive literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar. Primary historical texts, museum archives, scholarly works, popular media, documentaries, and artwork were reviewed. Results The armor used in the early Middle Ages was chain mail, which covered the neck, trunk, and upper arms and legs but failed to protect against blunt injury to the groin as weaponry became increasingly powerful. Full plate armor, developed by the 1300s, eventually included the codpiece, a small metal pouch to house the genitalia. In the late 1400s, however, codpieces appeared in civilian wear, modestly laced to men’s stockings as upper body shirts and tunics became shorter. Codpieces quickly became more ostentatious and bulkier in an ‘Arms Race’ of masculinity, were soon ridiculed in contemporary satires including works by Shakespeare and Rabelais and inspired royal edicts limiting their use. However, the codpiece was used in the management of genital disease as well, as the bulky wraps and ointments used to treat endemic syphilis were thus more easily concealed. The codpiece fell out of fashion by the late 16th century but its descendants, in sports and the performing arts, still have practical use today in genital protection and in men’s haute couture clothing design. Conclusions In the medieval battlefield, the codpiece was both protective and assertive of masculinity. Its military popularity eventually waned as armored battle proved no match for more modern weaponry, but the codpiece had a long influence on sartorial culture. The codpiece’s modern descendant, the athletic ‘cup’, has therefore a long and most unusual history in the pages of war and Renaissance clothing.

A Russian Doll of Resistance: Nested Gains and Losses of Venom Immunity in Varanid Lizards.

The interplay between predator and prey has catalyzed the evolution of venom systems, with predators honing their venoms in response to the evolving resistance of prey. A previous study showed that the African varanid species Varanus exanthematicus has heightened resistance to snake venoms compared to the Australian species V. giganteus, V. komodoensis, and V. mertensi, likely due to increased predation by sympatric venomous snakes on V. exanthematicus. To understand venom resistance among varanid lizards, we analyzed the receptor site targeted by venoms in 27 varanid lizards, including 25 Australian varanids. The results indicate an active evolutionary arms race between Australian varanid lizards and sympatric neurotoxic elapid snakes. Large species preying on venomous snakes exhibit inherited neurotoxin resistance, a trait potentially linked to their predatory habits. Consistent with the 'use it or lose it' aspect of venom resistance, this trait was secondarily reduced in two lineages that had convergently evolved gigantism (V. giganteus and the V. komodoensis/V. varius clade), suggestive of increased predatory success accompanying extreme size and also increased mechanical protection against envenomation due to larger scale osteoderms. Resistance was completely lost in the mangrove monitor V. indicus, consistent with venomous snakes not being common in their arboreal and aquatic niche. Conversely, dwarf varanids demonstrate a secondary loss at the base of the clade, with resistance subsequently re-evolving in the burrowing V. acanthurus/V. storri clade, suggesting an ongoing battle with neurotoxic predators. Intriguingly, within the V. acanthurus/V. storri clade, resistance was lost again in V. kingorum, which is morphologically and ecologically distinct from other members of this clade. Resistance was also re-evolved in V. glebopalma which is terrestrial in contrast to the arboreal/cliff dwelling niches occupied by the other members of its clade (V. glebopalma, V. mitchelli, V. scalaris, V. tristis). This 'Russian doll' pattern of venom resistance underscores the dynamic interaction between dwarf varanids and Australian neurotoxic elapid snakes. Our research, which included testing Acanthophis (death adder) venoms against varanid receptors as models for alpha-neurotoxic interactions, uncovered a fascinating instance of the Red Queen Hypothesis: some death adders have developed more potent toxins specifically targeting resistant varanids, a clear sign of the relentless predator-prey arms race. These results offer new insight into the complex dynamics of venom resistance and highlight the intricate ecological interactions that shape the natural world.

Measuring Arms: Introducing the Global Military Spending Dataset

Military spending data measure key international relations concepts such as balancing, arms races, the distribution of power, and the severity of military burdens. Unfortunately, missing values and measurement error threaten the validity of existing findings. Addressing this challenge, we introduce the Global Military Spending Dataset (GMSD). GMSD collates new and existing expenditure variables from a comprehensive collection of sources, expands data coverage, and employs a latent variable model to estimate missing values and quantify measurement error. We validate the data and present new findings. First, correlations between economic surplus and military spending are currently higher than at any point in the last two-hundred years. Second, updating DiGiuseppe and Poast’s (2018) analysis, we find larger substantive effects. Specifically, we find that the (negative) effect of a democratic ally on military spending is three times larger, and the (positive) effect of an increase in GDP is five times larger than previously estimated.

Prospects for improving the special physical training of the cadets of the Security Service of Ukraine

Abstract. The change in the military and political situation in the world, the appearance of new types of weapons, the latest approaches to the conduct of hostilities, the constant arms race - this requires us to constantly change approaches and improve the training of military professionals, increase the requirements for their physical and mental readiness to perform tasks as assigned . Carrying out a number of reforms in the training of military specialists of the security and defense sector requires us to analyze and fundamentally change the training programs of combat training, taking into account the latest approaches, forms and methods of using troops. The formation of the national security system of Ukraine takes place at the expense of the multi-vector work of all branches of government. The Security Service of Ukraine plays a significant role in the defense capability of the state in many areas of work, namely: it carries out information and analytical work in the interests of the effective conduct of internal and external activities by state authorities and management of Ukraine, solving problems of defense, socio-economic construction, scientific and technical progress, ecology and other issues related to the national security of Ukraine. One of the important factors is the training of qualified professionals, and especially the formation of important physical qualities for high-quality performance of assigned tasks.
 Physical training is organized and conducted taking into account the tasks assigned to the units and bodies of the SBU and the specifics of their official activities, geographical conditions, the level of preparedness of the personnel, as well as the experience of conducting special operations and exercises in the interests of ensuring the security of Ukraine. Special physical training plays a significant role in the training of military personnel. Implementation of tasks is achieved in classes by working out exercises in physical and fire training, educational and training meetings, training in shooting ranges and on training grounds, classes in sports sections, holding competitions in official and applied sports and other types of sports.

Artificial Intelligence in Indo-Pacific

The use of Artificial Intelligence in the military is like two sides of a coin. It can provide convenience and aid in military operations but has the potential to hinder military operations. Dangerous and potentially catastrophic for humanity will be inevitable as no restrictions on its use. The United States, China, Australia, Japan, and India are examples of nations whose militaries have developed artificial intelligence technology. Geographically, Southeast Asia, which is located in the middle of these nations, will experience a significant impact due to its tight maritime borders if there is no international consensus on the military application of artificial intelligence technology. An autonomous or autonomous system to operate this technology will reduce the amount of human control and allow it to operate without any human intervention. It will be a threat to the application of the fundamental principles of international humanitarian law, such as the distinction principle, and proportionality principle. Where these principles are tightly intertwined with human command and control in making decisions regarding the execution of attacks. The article employs normative legal methodology. Furthermore, this paper endeavours to assess the pertinence of principles in international humanitarian law during the era of the artificial intelligence arms race. It also delves into the contribution of ASEAN in upholding stability, peace, and security in the Southeast Asia region, thereby reinforcing the importance of this research. This research emphasises the importance of aligning the progress of artificial intelligence in military contexts with core principles of international humanitarian law. It underscores the need for ASEAN to safeguard regional peace and security by establishing a novel regulatory framework that outlines restrictions on the development and deployment of artificial intelligence for military objectives.

Evolution of larval gregariousness is associated with host plant specialisation, but not host morphology, in Heliconiini butterflies.

Insect herbivores, such as lepidopteran larvae, often have close evolutionary relationships with their host plants, with which they may be locked in an evolutionary arms race. Larval grouping behaviour may be one behavioural adaptation that improves host plant feeding, but aggregation also comes with costs, such as higher competition and limited resource access. Here, we use the Heliconiini butterfly tribe to explore the impact of host plant traits on the evolution of larval gregariousness. Heliconiini almost exclusively utilise species from the Passifloraceae as larval host plants. Passifloraceae display incredible diversity in leaf shape and a range of anti-herbivore defences, suggesting they are responding to, and influencing, the evolution of Heliconiini larvae. By analysing larval social behaviour as both a binary (solitary or gregarious) and categorical (increasing larval group size) trait, we revisit the multiple origins of larval gregariousness across Heliconiini. We investigate whether host habitat, leaf defences and leaf size are important drivers of, or constraints on, larval gregariousness. Whereas our data do not reveal links between larval gregariousness and the host plant traits included in this study, we do find an interaction between host plant specialisation and larval behaviour, revealing gregarious larvae to be more likely to feed on a narrower range of host plant species than solitary larvae. We also find evidence that this increased specialisation typically precedes the evolutionary transition to gregarious behaviour. The comparatively greater host specialisation of gregarious larvae suggests that there are specific morphological and/or ecological features of their host plants that favour this behaviour.

To the Editor: Reporting Limitations Misses the Mark to Reshape the Residency "Research Arms Race".

To the Editor: Reporting Limitations Misses the Mark to Reshape the Residency "Research Arms Race".

Spatial constraints and stochastic seeding subvert microbial arms race.

Surface attached communities of microbes grow in a wide variety of environments. Often, the size of these microbial community is constrained by their physical surroundings. However, little is known about how size constraints of a colony impact the outcome of microbial competitions. Here, we use individual-based models to simulate contact killing between two bacterial strains with different killing rates in a wide range of community sizes. We found that community size has a substantial impact on outcomes; in fact, in some competitions the identity of the most fit strain differs in large and small environments. Specifically, when at a numerical disadvantage, the strain with the slow killing rate is more successful in smaller environments than in large environments. The improved performance in small spaces comes from finite size effects; stochastic fluctuations in the initial relative abundance of each strain in small environments lead to dramatically different outcomes. However, when the slow killing strain has a numerical advantage, it performs better in large spaces than in small spaces, where stochastic fluctuations now aid the fast killing strain in small communities. Finally, we experimentally validate these results by confining contact killing strains of Vibrio cholerae in transmission electron microscopy grids. The outcomes of these experiments are consistent with our simulations. When rare, the slow killing strain does better in small environments; when common, the slow killing strain does better in large environments. Together, this work demonstrates that finite size effects can substantially modify antagonistic competitions, suggesting that colony size may, at least in part, subvert the microbial arms race.

Fatal Attraction: Argiope Spiders Lure Male Hemileuca Moth Prey with the Promise of Sex.

Predator-prey coevolution, particularly chemo-ecological arms races, is challenging to study as it requires the integration of behavioral, chemical ecology, and phylogenetic studies in an amenable system. Moths of the genus Hemileuca (Saturniidae) are colorful, diurnal, and fast and often fly well above the vegetation canopy layer. However, several Hemileuca species have been reported as being captured in spider webs, specifically Argiope species (Araneidae). Female Hemileuca are known to produce mating pheromones and spiders of the Araneidae family are known to use pheromone lures to attract lepidopteran prey. We presented primarily female Argiope aurantia, which are attractive to male Anisota pellucida (Saturniidae), to different populations of Hemileuca species across the southern and western United States to categorize the homing response strength of different species of male Hemileuca. When we mapped these Argiope lure attraction strength categories onto the most recently published Hemileuca phylogeny, the behavioral patterns suggested a potential co-evolutionary arms race between predators and prey. Males of Hemileuca maia, H. grotei, and H. nevadensis (all in the same clade) appeared to have no attraction to A. aurantia, while H. magnifica and H. hera (within a different, separate clade) appeared to be strongly attracted to A. aurantia, but H. nuttalli (also within the H. hera and H. magnifica clade) displayed no attraction. Furthermore, Hemileuca eglanterina (yet a different clade) displayed strong, weak, and no attraction to A. aurantia, depending on the population. These apparent clade partitioning patterns of Argiope lure effectiveness and within-species variation in Hemileuca lure responses suggest a predator-prey coevolutionary history of measures and countermeasures.

Nest architecture influences host use by avian brood parasites and is shaped by coevolutionary dynamics.

Brood (social) parasites and their hosts exhibit a wide range of adaptations and counter-adaptations as part of their ongoing coevolutionary arms races. Obligate avian brood parasites are expected to use potential host species with more easily accessible nests, while potential hosts are expected to evade parasitism by building more concealed nests that are difficult for parasites to enter and in which to lay eggs. We used phylogenetically informed comparative analyses, a global database of the world's brood parasites, their host species, and the design of avian host and non-host nests (approx. 6200 bird species) to examine first, whether parasites preferentially target host species that build open nests and, second, whether host species that build enclosed nests are more likely to be targeted by specialist parasites. We found that species building more accessible nests are more likely to serve as hosts, while host species with some of the more inaccessible nests are targeted by more specialist brood parasites. Furthermore, evolutionary-transition analyses demonstrate that host species building enclosed nests frequently evolve to become non-hosts. We conclude that nest architecture and the accessibility of nests for parasitism represent a critical stage of the ongoing coevolutionary arms race between avian brood parasites and their hosts.

The race for global leadership and its risks for world instability: Technologies of controlling and mitigation

In today's ever-evolving geopolitical landscape, the pursuit of global leadership has become an intensifying competition that holds significant implications for global stability. This article explores the emergence of rivalry among major global powers as well as existing and potential consequences it poses for the world. Taking into account the shifting dynamics in international relations, the article highlights the primary contenders vying for global leadership and their distinct approaches to exerting influence on the world stage. It scrutinizes the escalating tensions between these powers as they strive to secure technological, economic, and military superiority, and how these rivalries can reverberate across different regions. The article examines the impact on international cooperation efforts, as rivalries may hinder collaboration on critical global issues such as climate change, security, and governance. Additionally, the study assesses the economic interdependency among nations and the potential disruptions that can arise as rival powers aim to shape the global order to their advantage. Addressing the potential consequences of this rivalry, the research explores into the risks of military escalation and arms races, highlighting the need for diplomatic efforts to mitigate conflict and promote peaceful resolutions. It also emphasizes the importance of fostering multilateral institutions and mechanisms for effective conflict resolution and cooperation among nations. The study presents relevant strategies to control and mitigate the risks associated with global instability.

Unveiling Prasinovirus diversity and host specificity through targeted enrichment in the South China Sea.

Unicellular green picophytoplankton from the Mamiellales order are pervasive in marine ecosystems and susceptible to infections by prasinoviruses, large double-stranded DNA viruses within the Nucleocytoviricota phylum. We developed a double-stranded DNA virus enrichment and shotgun sequencing method, and successfully assembled 80 prasinovirus genomes from 43 samples in the South China Sea. Our research delivered the first direct estimation of 94% accuracy in correlating genome similarity to host range. Stirkingly, our analyses uncovered unexpected host-switching across diverse algal lineages, challenging the existing paradigms of host-virus co-speciation and revealing the dynamic nature of viral evolution. We also detected six instances of horizontal gene transfer between prasinoviruses and their hosts, including a novel alternative oxidase. Additionally, diversifying selection on a major capsid protein suggests an ongoing co-evolutionary arms race. These insights not only expand our understanding of prasinovirus genomic diversity but also highlight the intricate evolutionary mechanisms driving their ecological success and shaping broader virus-host interactions in marine environments.

Attachment performance of the ectoparasitic seal louse Echinophthirius horridus

Marine mammals host a great variety of parasites, which usually co-evolved in evolutionary arms races. However, little is known about the biology of marine mammal insect parasites, and even less about physical aspects of their life in such a challenging environment. One of 13 insect species that manage to endure long diving periods in the open sea is the seal louse, Echinophthirius horridus, parasitising true seals. Its survival depends on its specialised adaptations for enduring extreme conditions such as hypoxia, temperature changes, hydrostatic pressure, and strong drag forces during host dives. To maintain a grip on the seal fur, the louse’s leg morphology is equipped with modified snap hook claws and soft pad-like structures that enhance friction. Through techniques including CLSM, SEM, and histological staining, we have examined the attachment system’s detailed structure. Remarkably, the seal louse achieves exceptional attachment forces on seal fur, with safety factors (force per body weight) reaching 4500 in average measurements and up to 18000 in peak values, indicating superior attachment performance compared to other insect attachment systems. These findings underscore the louse’s remarkable adaptations for life in a challenging marine environment, shedding light on the relationship between structure and function in extreme ecological niches.

The Double Contradiction - Education Gospel and Education Penalty

The wishful thinking of education-jobs-development promise has formed within the emergence of the trinity of the knowledge economy, meritocracy and human capital theory embedded in education ideology. The take-for-granted promise is idealized and deceptive, which largely ignores the interplay of other variables. The education arms race, credential inflation, overeducation, the dilemma of liberal arts and humanity subjects, and education penalties for employees, especially student workers, have exposed another side of the seemingly promising trinity. In this sense, the absolute goodness of education has gradually tilted toward relative or positional goodness, suggesting an alienated structure which simultaneously constrains individuals. Focusing on the paradoxes of the trinity specifically, allows people to not only scrutinize the overall picture and interconnection of those educational settings but also how education shapes and reshapes different stakeholders. This essay expounded the traps of the trinity, indicating meritocracy reproduces inequality and its premise on ability-based placement is also flawed. Heavily human-capital-based-idealogy alienates education. People with knowledge do not necessarily gain high-income jobs. The paper suggests a reconnection and review on education purposes for education stakeholders and the construction of a working environment legal protective framework to embrace the increasing student workforce.