Armillaria Mellea Research Articles

Armillaria mellea: an adenosine A1 agonist useful against dizziness and a possible anti-ischemic agent

L’Armillaria mellea (AM) est un agoniste adénosine A1 qui en théorie protège les tissus de l’ischémie. Des effets antivertigineux sont documentés par un essai randomisé en double insu. Les effets antiépileptogènes, protecteurs sur le rein, sur le coeur (antiarythmogène ou antiangineux) ou encore sur les nerfs périphériques restent théoriques. Comme de nombreux champignons, l’AM stimule l’immunité et possède des propriétés antioxydantes ou antibiotiques. Il faut tenir compte de son effet fibrinolytique lors d’une prescription: utilité pour reperfuser un tissu mais risque lorsqu’associé à un antiagrégant plaquettaire ou à un anticoagulant. On retiendra surtout son potentiel important contre les vertiges et l’ischémie.

Isotope ratio mass spectrometry identifies soil microbial biocontrol agents having trophic relations with the plant pathogen Armillaria mellea

An understanding of the types of interactions that take place between plant pathogens and other microorganisms in the natural environment is crucial in order to identify new potential biocontrol agents. The use of microorganisms labelled with stable isotopes is a potentially useful method for studying direct parasitisation of a given pathogen or assimilation of the pathogen's metabolites by microorganisms. A microorganism labelled with a stable isotope can be monitored in the environment and isotope ratio mass spectrometry can detect whether it is directly parasitised or its metabolites are used by other microorganisms. In this study, we isolated 158 different species of fungi and bacteria from soil and assayed their biocontrol potential against a plant pathogen (Armillaria mellea) by coupling a dual-culture test with mass spectrometry analysis of the 13C isotope in the microorganisms in presence of 13C-labelled A. mellea. The microorganisms affected the pathogen by means of antibiosis phenomena (total or partial inhibition of pathogen growth, alteration of its morphology) and by antagonism, probably resulting from competition for space and nutrients or from mycoparasitism. Isotope ratio mass spectrometry was used to identify direct trophic interactions between microorganisms and the pathogen as in dual cultures as in soil microcosms. Six fungi and one bacterium were found to display the best active trophic behaviour against the pathogenin dual cultures; three microorganisms were discarded due to their plant pathogen potential. Trichoderma harzianum, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Rhodosporidium babjevae were selected to carry out the experiments. T. harzianum inhibited pathogen development (rate of inhibition 80±0.19%) and its δ13C values increased (244.03±36.70‰) in contact with 13C-labelled A. mellea. Lower levels of antagonism and correspondingly lower assimilation of 13C were detected in P. fluorescens and R. babjevae. Only T. harzianum maintained mycoparasitic activity in the soil microcosm, showing a δ13C value of 1.97±2.24‰ after one month in co-presence with the labelled pathogen. This study provides support for the use of isotope ratio mass spectrometry as an additional tool in screening for potential biocontrol agents.

Antioxidant and Antiedema Properties of Solid-State Cultured Honey Mushroom, Armillaria mellea (Higher Basidiomycetes), Extracts and their Polysaccharide and Polyphenol Contents

Culinary-medicinal honey mushroom or Mi-Huan-Ku, Armillaria mellea (AM), is a popular ingredient in the traditional Chinese medicine for treating diseases of geriatric patients. This study aimed to examine the effect of cultured substrates on the mycelial growth of AM and evaluate its antioxidant and antiedema activities as well as its total polysaccharide and polyphenol contents. Results showed that AM grew best on the maize medium and worst on the potato medium. AM ethanol extract (AM-EtOH) showed stronger DPPH radical scavenging activity than AM aqueous extract (AM-H₂O). However, they were weak in metal chelation and reducing power. AM-EtOH but not AM-H₂O at 200 mg/kg showed antiedema activity in rats. The total β-glucan content of AM-H₂O and AM-EtOH was 21.95% and 3.50%, respectively. AM-EtOH showed higher phenol but lower flavonoid content than AM-H₂O. These results indicate that maize is a good source of substrate for mass production of AM mycelia, and its potency of DPPH radical scavenging and antiedema activities was contributed mainly by the phenolic compounds, not the level of polysaccharide content.

Extracellular bioluminescence of mycelium metabolites of the luminous mushroom Panellus stipticus (IBSO-2301) growing on an agar medium

39 In available literature, attempts to locate the sources of luminescence of higher fungi growing on agar media were reported in only two studies. In 1963, Berliner and Hovnanian used a photoprocess to record light from individual hyphae of Panus stipticus and Armillaria fusipes mycelia. However, a low resolution of the method limited by emulsion grain precluded the location of the light source. It was suggested that the light is emitted by the entire cell [1]. In 1970, Callerja and Reynolds used an optical microscope equipped with a photomultiplier to show that, in Panus stipticus and Armillaria mellea fungi, light is coming from indi vidual hyphae of mycelium, while the growing region of the cell not emitting light [2].

Antioxidant Properties of Ethanol Extracts from <i>Hohenbuehelia serotina</i> and <i>Armillaria mellea</i>

Ethanol extracts from Hohenbuehelia serotina and Armillaria mellea fruit bodies were prepared and investigated for their antioxidant capacities in three different assays, namely, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity, reducing power and chelating ability on ferrous ions. Among the two mushrooms, ethanol extracts from A. mellea was more effective than that from H. serotina in scavenging DPPH free radical ability, while ethanol extracts from H. serotina was some higher than that from A. mellea in reducing power. With regard to chelating effect on ferrous ions, at 5 mg/mL, chelating ability of ethanol extracts from H. serotina were 43.17 %, while that from A. mellea was 46.54%. It can be concluded that ethanol extracts from A. mellea and H. serotina were good in antioxidant properties.

The macrofungal diversity and community of Atlantic oak <i>(Quercus petraea</i> and <i>Q. robur)</i> forests in Ireland

The oak species Quercus petraea and Q. Robur are dominant canopy tree species of native deciduous forests in Ireland and coastal regions of Western Europe. These forests are typically plant species-rich, and can also have a rich fungal flora. This survey examined macrofungi found in five native oak sites across Ireland over three years. Overall, 94 macrofungal species belonging to 39 genera were discovered with Mycena, Lactarius, Russula and Cortinarius the most species-rich genera. The species accumulation curve did not show signs of levelling off, indicating that more sampling would reveal more new species. Species richness estimation using the Chao2 estimator indicated that up to 135 species may be present across all of our plots, with individual plots receiving estimates from 19 to 61 species per plot. Sampled-based rarefaction analysis showed no significant differences in macrofungal species richness between our plots. The five most common species were Laccaria amethystina, L. laccata, Stereum hirsutum, Armillaria mellea and Cortinarius flexipes . Comparisons of the results with results from oak forests in similar regions found that the communities in Great Britain were most similar to those found in Ireland. There were some key oak forest distinguishing fungal species from the family Boletaceae lacking from Irish oak forests. It is hypothesised that the historic deforestation of Ireland, caused a reduction of suitable habitats for Irish oak associated macrofungi, leading to the unspecific mycota found in the oak forests of this study. The threats to Atlantic oak forests in Ireland are briefly discussed.

Evidence of natural hybridization among homothallic members of the basidiomycete Armillaria mellea sensu stricto

Populations of Armillaria mellea (Basidiomycota, Agaricales) across much of its range are heterothallic; homothallic populations occur only in Africa (A. mellea ssp. africana), China (China Biological Species CBS G), and Japan (A. mellea ssp. nipponica). Monosporous isolates of heterothallic A. mellea are haploid and their mating behaviour is consistent with the requirement of two different alleles at two mating-type loci (tetrapolar mating system) to create a diploid individual. In contrast, monosporous isolates of homothallic A. mellea are putatively diploid; they bypass the haploid phase by undergoing karyogamy in the basidium (a unique type of secondary homothallism/pseudohomothallism). In order to determine the genetic origin of this homothallism, we analyzed genetic variation of 47 heterothallic isolates from China, Europe, and North America, and 14 homothallic isolates from Africa, China, and Japan. Gene trees and mutational networks were constructed for partial mitochondrial gene ATP synthase subunit 6 (ATP6) and for the following nuclear genes: actin (ACTIN), elongation factor subunit 1-alpha (EFA), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD), and the RNA polymerase subunit II (RPB2). Homothallic isolates from Africa and Japan shared a common mitochondrial ATP6 haplotype with homothallic isolates from China, and are likely introductions. Homothallic isolates from China that shared a common mitochondrial haplotype with all European isolates did not share European nuclear haplotypes, as revealed by median-joining networks, but instead clustered with haplotypes from China or were intermediate between those of China and Europe. Such mitochondrial–nuclear discordance in homothallic isolates from China is indicative of hybridization between lineages originating from China and Europe.

Studying trophic interactions between a plant pathogen and two different antagonistic microorganisms using a 13C‐labeled compound and isotope ratio mass spectrometry

The study of the interactions among microorganisms, especially between pathogens and other microorganisms, is a very useful way to identify possible biocontrol agents (BCAs). In this study we verified the capability of δ(13)C analysis using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to detect active parasitism or metabolic assimilation of (13)C-labeled Armillaria mellea (plant pathogen) by Trichoderma atroviride and Pseudomonas fluorescens (two BCAs). The three microorganisms were labeled in pure-culture using a specific medium to which D-glucose (13)C was added. The δ(13)C analysis of mycelia/cells and DNA was undertaken using IRMS at different times, to study the uptake kinetics of (13)C. The mechanisms of interaction were studied by implementing dual-culture tests and measuring the δ(13)C values of the two BCAs after 29 days of contact with the labeled pathogen. A. mellea absorbed (13)C more slowly (plateau at 21 days) than T. atroviride and P. fluorescens (3 and 1 day, respectively) in pure-culture. The maximum δ(13)C values were higher in A. mellea and T. atroviride mycelia (8,019.9‰ and 10,383.7‰, respectively) than in P. fluorescens (953.4‰ in cells). In dual-culture the mycelia of T. atroviride which remained in direct contact with labeled A. mellea showed an increased δ(13)C value with respect to the unlabeled treatment (66.4‰ and -26.6‰, respectively), due to active interaction. Lower assimilation of (13)C was detected in P. fluorescens. This work demonstrates that IRMS can be used for the in-depth study of direct parasitism and interaction process between biocontrol agents and labeled pathogens, allowing the screening of potential new BCAs.

Inferring dispersal patterns of the generalist root fungus Armillaria mellea

Investigating the dispersal of the root-pathogenic fungus Armillaria mellea is necessary to understand its population biology. Such an investigation is complicated by both its subterranean habit and the persistence of genotypes over successive host generations. As such, host colonization by resident mycelia is thought to outcompete spore infections. We evaluated the contributions of mycelium and spores to host colonization by examining a site in which hosts pre-date A. mellea. Golden Gate Park (San Francisco, CA, USA) was established in 1872 primarily on sand dunes that supported no resident mycelia. Genotypes were identified by microsatellite markers and somatic incompatibility pairings. Spatial autocorrelation analyses of kinship coefficients were used to infer spore dispersal distance. The largest genotypes measured 322 and 343 m in length, and 61 of the 90 total genotypes were recovered from only one tree. The absence of multilocus linkage disequilibrium and the high proportion of unique genotypes suggest that spore dispersal is an important part of the ecology and establishment of A. mellea in this ornamental landscape. Spatial autocorrelations indicated a significant spatial population structure consistent with limited spore dispersal. This isolation-by-distance pattern suggests that most spores disperse over a few meters, which is consistent with recent, direct estimates based on spore trapping data.

Development and verification of a diagnostic assay based on EF‐1 α for the identification ofArmillariaspecies in Northern Europe

SummaryThe overall aim of this study was to develop a new, reliable and rapid diagnostic assay for differentiating six EuropeanArmillariaspecies based on variation in their elongation factor‐1 alpha (EF‐1 α) gene sequences and to verify a set of species‐specific primers on 61Armillariaisolates from Europe. Partial sequences of the EF‐1 α gene obtained inArmillaria borealis,Armillaria cepistipes,Armillaria gallica,Armillaria mellea,Armillaria ostoyaeandArmillaria tabescensrevealed sufficient interspecific variation to distinguish among species using nested primers. These primers gave unambiguous bands when tested on representative isolates of five of these species. However, the EF‐1 α sequences of EuropeanA. borealisisolates clustered into two distinct clades, termed hereAbX andAbY. Specific primers were subsequently designed and tested successfully on bothAbX‐type andAbY‐typeA. borealisisolates. The taxonomy ofA. borealisneeds to be elucidated to determine whether a new, as yet unnamedArmillariataxon exists in Europe. ThreeA. borealisisolates were also found to have heterozygous sites in their EF‐1 α sequences, which suggests that the gene could exist in more than one copy or that these isolates contain hybrid sequences. A pyrosequencing method was also developed, targeting a small region of EF‐1 α intron 4, which was able to differentiate EuropeanArmillariaisolates to the species level and additionally could distinguishAbX‐type andAbY‐typeA. borealisisolates.

Determination of Fe and Zn Accumulation in Leafy Vegetables and Mushrooms Using Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Technique

The aim of this study was to determine the Fe and Zn concentrations in some leafy vegetables (cabbage, spinach, celery and lettuce) and in their growing soil collected from sites with different industrial activity; in fruiting body of wild edible mushrooms (Armillariella mellea) and in their substrate (soil) collected at different distances by a metal smelter, by using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) technique.
 A quantitative evaluation of the relationship of Fe and Zn uptake by the vegetables and mushrooms from soil was made by calculating the coefficient accumulation Ka. The results reveal that lettuce is a accumulator of Fe and Armillariella mellea is a accumulator of Zn.

Armillaria species distribution and site relationships in Pinus- and Tsuga-dominated forests in Massachusetts

The primary objective of this study was to determine the composition of Armillaria species in northeastern North American Pinus - and Tsuga -dominated forests. This was accomplished by sampling 32 plots at eight sites within pitch pine ( Pinus rigida Mill.), eastern white pine ( Pinus strobus L.), eastern white pine – mixed oak, and eastern hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.) forests. In total, 320 isolates were collected from 19 host tree species, with 207 of 320 (65%) of all isolations coming from Pinus and Tsuga. Armillaria solidipes Peck was the most abundant species, making up 188 of 320 (59%) of all isolations, which included 39 isolations from hardwoods. Meanwhile, Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm. was collected a total of 27 times from eastern white and pitch pine. These two Armillaria species co-occurred at five of the eight sites sampled. Chi-square analyses showed that incidence of Armillaria species were significantly different by forest type. Pitch pine forests had a higher incidence of A. solidipes (p < 0.001), eastern white pine forests had a higher incidence of A. mellea (p = 0.001), and eastern hemlock forests had a higher incidence of Armillaria gallica Marxm. & Romagn. (p = 0.002) compared with expected values. The distribution of A. solidipes varied significantly by soil drainage and soil type, with a higher incidence on excessively drained (p < 0.001) and loamy sand (p < 0.001) soils.

Antioxidant property and production of exopolysaccharide from Armillaria mellea in submerged cultures: Effect of culture aeration rate

AbstractEffects of culture aeration rate on production and antioxidant property of exopolysaccharide (EPS) by Armillaria mellea were investigated in a 5‐L stirred‐tank bioreactor where an optimal biomass aeration rate of 1.2 vvm with 0.22 g/g cell yield and 0.6 vvm EPS formation rate with 7.66 mg/g product yield were achieved. A two‐stage aeration process to maximize the biomass and EPS productions proceeded with a 1.55‐fold enhancement (from 4.28 to 6.65 g/L) in biomass formation and a 2.68‐fold enhancement (from 86.9 to 233.2 mg/L) in the EPS production, as compared with those from the aeration rate of 0.3 vvm. The molecular weights of EPS in cultures of different aeration rates are closely correlated with their protein/polysaccharide ratios (R2=0.830) and EC50 (EC50, the effective concentration where the antioxidant property is 50%) values in antioxidant activity (R2=0.960), reducing power (R2=0.894) and chelating ability (R2=0.954). EPS from the two‐stage aeration rate culture shows a strong antioxidant property by the conjugated diene method, reducing power and chelating ability on ions. Therefore, we present results to regulate and to optimize A. mellea cultures to efficiently produce biomass and EPS. The fermented EPS has the potential to be used as for antioxidant‐related functional foods and pharmaceutical industries.

Characterisation of the ArmA adenylation domain implies a more diverse secondary metabolism in the genus Armillaria

The armA-gene, encoding a tridomain enzyme reminiscent of nonribosomal peptide synthetases, was identified in the genome of the basidiomycete Armillaria mellea. Heterologously expressed enzyme and the ATP-pyrophosphate exchange assay were used for the in vitro biochemical characterisation of the ArmA adenylation domain. l-leucine was the preferred substrate, while l-threonine, l-valine, l-alanine, and l-isoleucine were turned over at lower rates (83 %, 62 %, 56 %, and 44 %, respectively). Other proteinogenic amino acids, 2-oxo acids, and benzoic acid derivatives were not accepted. As the substrate range of ArmA is incompatible with the secondary metabolites known from the genus Armillaria, our results imply greater natural product diversity in this genus. This is the first biochemical characterisation of a basidiomycete amino acid-adenylating domain, and our results may help refine computer algorithms to predict substrate specificities for basidiomycete nonribosomal peptide synthetases whose genes are discovered through genome sequencing.

Evaluation of partial tef1, rpb2, and nLSU sequences for identification of isolates representing Armillaria calvescens and Armillaria gallica from northeastern North America

Armillaria calvescens and Armillaria gallica are two of the most closely-related species of Armillaria in North America and have been difficult to distinguish from one another using morphological and molecular techniques. In an attempt to better distinguish these two species, partial sequences of the elongation factor-1 alpha ( tef1), RNA polymerase II ( rpb2), and nuclear large subunit (nLSU) genes were generated for 32 total isolates; 12 isolates each for A. calvescens and A. gallica, along with two isolates each of Armillaria gemina, Armillaria mellea, Armillaria sinapina, and Armillaria solidipes. Within the tef1 amplicon, five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were present between A. calvescens and A. gallica. Phylogenetic reconstruction using the maximum likelihood (ML) and maximum parsimony (MP) methods showed that tef1 was the only gene capable of distinguishing A. calvescens from A. gallica, and additionally, all isolates representing the six northeastern North American species. Partial tef1 sequences grouped A. calvescens into a strongly-supported, monophyletic clade with bootstrap support (BS) values of 98/98 % (ML/MP), while A. gallica was grouped into a monophyletic clade with lower BS support (76/59 %). The results illustrate the utility of partial tef1 sequences for the identification of field isolates of Armillaria from northeastern North America.

ROOT COLLAR EXCAVATION WITH TRICHODERMA INOCULATIONS AS A POTENTIAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR HONEY FUNGUS (ARMILLARIA MELLE A)

Summary Honey fungus (Armillaria mellea) is an important pathogen that can cause severe damage to infected trees and other plants. In this study we investigated the effect of air-spading and/or inoculation with a bio-control fungus as controls for honey fungus. Air-spading uses compressed air to de-compact soil while causing minimal disturbance or damage to the root system. Air-spading can also use compressed air to permanently remove soil from the base of the tree trunk to the depth at which main roots originate, a technique known as root collar excavation. The bio-control fungus Trichoderma harzianum strain (Trade name Trianum) is a root symbiont that is known to protect host plants from a range of pathogenic fungi. Raised beds were constructed and artificially inoculated with A. mellea while non-A. mellea infected beds acted as controls. One year later A. mellea infected raised beds were subjected to one of the following treatments i) no treatment ii) air-spading, iii) air-spading + T. harzianum or iv) T. harzianum only. The effectiveness and longevity of air-spading and T. harzianum was determined by potting up strawberry plants cv Cambridge favourite (highly susceptible to honey fungus attack) at month 6, 12, 18 and 24 after treatment. A. mellea infection was then quantified at day 90 after potting up by assessing visual plant condition, leaf chlorophyll fluorescence Fv/Fm, leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD) values and fruit yield per plant. Air-spading A. mellea infested soil with and without T. harzianum resulted in a two year protective period in which A. mellea failed to re-infect strawberry plants. In addition, failure to re-isolate A. mellea from media after air-spading indicates the air spading process may have eradicated A. mellea from the infected raised bed. Some degree of protective properties against A. mellea was confirmed when applying T. harzianum alone. For example, based on visual plant condition, application of T. harzianum reduced A. mellea severity by 12.5–65.7% over the two year study. Findings of this study strongly indicate that air-spading followed by inoculation with T. harzianum appears to offer promise as a joint cultural/bio-control strategy for the management of A. mellea. Results however, should be interpreted with some degree of caution as experiments were conducted under controlled conditions where soil conditions may vary from that in a woodland, forest or urban environment.

In vitro evaluation of antifungal activity of the seed extract of embelia ribes

Antifungal activity of Embelia ribes was evaluated on eight different fungal species by employing various concentrations of seed extract (0.5-2.0 mg). All the concentrations of seed extract inhibited the fungal growth, whereas maximum activity was observed at 2.0 mg concentration of seed extract. Among different doses, the diameter of inhibition zones ranged from 9 to 18 mm in various fungal species and increased with the increase in the concentration of test solution. Among all the fungi, high inhibition zones were observed in Colletotricum crassipes (18 mm). This was followed by Cladosporium (17.5 mm), Armillaria mellea (17 mm), Colletotricum capsici (17 mm), Aspergillus niger (16.5 mm), Rhizopus oryzae (16.5 mm), respectively. Aspergillus terreus and Candida albicans showed less inhibition zones (15.5 and 16.0 mm) compared to other organisms. The present study clearly demonstrated the antifungal properties of Embelia ribes.

Koji fermentation based on extracellular peptidases of Flammulina velutipes

A total of 28 basidiomycetes and 16 substrates were investigated to detect extracellular peptidases for the hydrolysis of wheat gluten as a complex Koji substrate. In a first screening, basidiomycetes were grown in submerged cultures containing gluten as only carbon and nitrogen source. Growth rate, protein concentration and peptidase activity were monitored. Flammulina velutipes, Armillaria mellea, Trametes versicolor, Meripilus giganteus, Fomitopsis pinicola, Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Hericium erinaceus showed high peptidase activity. To evaluate the effects of complex substrates on peptidase generation, a set of experiments was performed using surface cultures of Flammulina velutipes. This fungus grew well on many of the substrates and yielded a maximum of over 160.000 arbitrary U mL−1 on the surface liquid released from gluten pellets. Gelatin zymography visualized a complex mixture of secreted peptidases. Highest peptidase yield was obtained from a koji-type culture: A maximum of 63% of the gluten was converted to free amino acids in 14 days by peptidase activities in the range of 80,000–90,000 aU mL−1. The dark brown hydrolysate smelled and tasted like meat broth with no detectable bitterness.

Immunomodulatory effect of mushrooms on cytotoxic activity and cytokine production of intestinal lamina propria leukocytes does not necessarily depend on β-glucan contents

We evaluated the effects of seven mushroom extracts (Grifola frondosa, Pholiota nameko, Panellus serotinus, Hypsizygus marmoreus, Pleurotus cornucopiae, Armillaria mellea, and Flammulina velutipes) on cytotoxic activity and cytokine production of lamina propria leukocytes (LPLs) isolated from rat small (S) and large (L) intestinal mucosa. Boiling water extracts from seven species of mushrooms showed no direct cytotoxicity against the YAC-1 target cells. However, prominent increases of cytotoxicity were observed in S- and L-LPLs co-cultured with P. serotinus extract. Cytokine production (TNFα, IFNγ, IL-12 p70, and IL-4) of S- and L-LPLs was stimulated in response to P. cornucopiae extract. Mushroom extracts contributed to target cell adhesion and/or cytokine production in the effector cells. The promotion of cytotoxic activity in S- and L-LPLs was not necessarily related to β-glucan content of the mushroom.

Distribution, ecology and host range of Armillaria species in Albania

SummarySpecies of Armillaria were identified from 645 isolates obtained in a nation‐wide survey in Albania. The material was collected from ca. 250 permanent plots, established for monitoring forest health, and from forests and orchards attacked by Armillaria. Armillaria mellea s.s. occurred on several coniferous and broadleaved trees in most areas examined, although it was absent above 1100–1200 m in northern Albania. This species damaged Abies and Quercus spp. and, to a lesser extent, other forest trees. Armillaria mellea was also commonly recorded causing damage in orchards and vineyards. Armillaria gallica was a common saprophyte or weak pathogen in coniferous and deciduous forests at altitudes from 600 to 1600 m, and less commonly on oaks at lower altitudes. Armillaria ostoyae was rare in central and southern Albania, but common in northern Albania, causing significant damage to pine and other conifers, mostly at altitudes from 600 to 1800 m. Armillaria cepistipes was recorded at altitudes from 800 to 1800 m as a saprophyte or weak pathogen on conifers and deciduous trees, mostly in beech and silver fir forests. Armillaria tabescens was found in oak forests at altitudes from sea level to 900 m. In orchards, A. tabescens occasionally attacked almond and pear trees. Armillaria borealis was found in a few locations in northern Albania, at altitudes from 800 to 1800 m.