Arithmetic Subtests Research Articles

Fluid Reasoning Mediates the Association of Birth Weight With ADHD Symptoms in Youth From Multiplex Families With ADHD

Objective: We tested mediation of birth weight and ADHD symptoms by multiple biologically plausible neurocognitive functions and evaluated familiality of observed indirect effects. Method: 647 youth from 284 multiplex families with ADHD completed the Arithmetic, Digit Span, Vocabulary, and Block Design subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Multiple mediation tested WISC subtests as mediators of birth weight and multi-informant ADHD symptoms. Familiality of indirect effects was estimated via moderated mediation comparing conditional indirect effects across siblings concordant and discordant for ADHD. Results: Controlling for IQ and demographic factors, Arithmetic uniquely mediated birth weight and ADHD symptoms. Conditional indirect effects through Arithmetic did not differ across ADHD concordant and discordant siblings. Conclusion: These cross-sectional findings support previous prospective longitudinal research implicating Arithmetic (i.e., fluid reasoning) as a preliminary causal mediator of birth weight and ADHD symptoms, and suggest that this pathway is independent of genetic influences on ADHD.

Development of the Arithmetic Subtest of the School Achievement Test-Second Edition

The School Achievement Test (Teste de Desempenho Escolar, TDE) has been widely used in clinical and educational contexts for the past 22 years. Arithmetic disorders are frequent among children and teenagers, requiring new and updated tasks to assess as accurately as possible school achievement. The last decade has witnessed a growing recognition of the need for significant changes in educational assessment practices. Evidence provided by item response theory (IRT) enabled the link of more detailed information improving assessment quality. The aim of this study was to develop a revised and completely updated version of the Arithmetic Subtest for the School Achievement Test-Second Edition (Teste de Desempenho Escolar-Segunda Edicao, TDE-II). To this end, two studies were conducted. The first study focused on item and test construction, while the second study assessed the preliminary version of the instrument. The sample consisted of 302 students in grades 1 through 9 recruited from public and private schools. Factor analysis revealed two factors which explained 74 % of the variance in the data. Both dimensions were closely related to item complexity and difficulty. The subtest was therefore divided into two versions: one for students in grades 1 through 5 and the other for those in grades 6 through 9. Both versions were analyzed based on IRT models, which suggested that the items provided a comprehensive measure of the latent trait. The results provided satisfactory evidence of internal structure and reliability. Results indicated that the Arithmetic Subtest of the TDE-II has adequate psychometric properties for the assessment of arithmetic skills in primary education. Interpretation based on IRT analyses can be helpful for future studies about math education, discriminating even better between learning difficulty and typical groups, with the data to be the basis of math cognition stimulation programs.

Neurocognitive Functioning Mediates the Prospective Association of Birth Weight With Youth ADHD Symptoms

Although birth weight is a potential causal risk factor for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, both the specificity of this association and its mediating pathways are largely unknown. We carefully assessed youth with and without ADHD (i.e., Wave 1), and followed them prospectively for 2 years (i.e., Wave 2). We (a) tested the association of birth weight with Wave 2 ADHD symptoms, and (b) evaluated biologically plausible neurocognitive functions from Wave 1 as temporally ordered mediators of birth weight and Wave 2 ADHD symptoms in a multiple mediation framework. At Wave 1, 222 ethnically diverse youth (30% female; ages 5–10) completed the Digit Span, Vocabulary, Symbol Search, and Arithmetic subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–IV. At both Wave 1 and Wave 2 (ages 7–13), multiple informants (i.e., parents, teachers) rated youth ADHD symptoms and co-occurring psychopathology using multiple methods (i.e., structured interview, rating scale). Controlling for demographic factors, gestational age, and co-occurring externalizing and internalizing psychopathology, birth weight inversely predicted Wave 2 ADHD symptoms across multiple methods and informants. Additionally, controlling for Wave 1 ADHD symptoms and relevant covariates, Wave 1 Arithmetic uniquely mediated the association of birth weight with multi-method/informant Wave 2 ADHD symptoms. These findings suggest that birth weight is a relatively specific risk factor for youth ADHD symptoms and they implicate individual differences in fluid reasoning as a preliminary causal mediator of this association. We discuss implications for future research evaluating causal mechanisms underlying risk factors for ADHD.

A study for development and validation of the computer-based working memory tasks for school-aged children

IntroductionWorking memory (WM) is the ability to retain and manipulate information during a short period of time. According to previous studies, children who have neurocognitive dysfunctions, such as ADHD and learning disorder were found to have a WM problem, which was associated with frontal lobe dysfunction, especially dysfunctions in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.ObjectivesIn the present study, we developed the computer-based WM tasks for school-aged children, which help to provide a timely assessment of risk and preventive intervention for children with subclinical attention problems.AimsWe evaluated the construct and concurrent validity of newly developed WM tasks.MethodsA hundred and fourteen 8- to 10-year-old children were recruited. The newly developed, computer-based WM tasks consist of two domains:– auditory-verbal WM;– visual-spatial WM.We examined the construct validity of the tasks through examining the developmental trend of the WM abilities with age. To determine the concurrent validity of those tasks, we conducted correlation analyses between the participants’ scores and their scores on well-known measures of verbal and visual WM; Arithmetic and Letter-Number Sequencing subtest of intelligence scale (KEDI WISC), and Corsi block test.ResultsThere are marked linear increasing trends of the response accuracy with age. Further, there were high correlations between the scores of two WM tasks and the corresponding scores of standardized assessment tools.ConclusionsThis study showed promising evidence for the validity of computer-based tasks assessing WM, which might have the utility for school-aged children in research and clinical settings.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Sex Differences on the WAIS-IV in the South Korean Standardization Sample

Data are reported for the scores of men and women on the standardization of the WAIS-IV in South Korea. Men obtained a significantly higher Full Scale IQ than women by 4.65 IQ points and on the Block Design, Information and Arithmetic subtests, while women obtained higher scores than men on the Symbol Search and Coding subtests. Men showed greater variability than women on the Full Scale IQ. Key Words: South Korea, WAIS-IV, Sex differences, Intelligence, Male variability

Two Studies of Sex Differences on the WAIS in Russia

Data are reported for two studies of sex differences on the WAIS in Russia. In the first study a sample of 16 year old males obtained a 1.96 points higher Full Scale IQ than females and higher scores on the Arithmetic and Picture Completion subtests while females obtained a higher score than males on the Digit Symbol Search subtest. Males showed less variability than females on the Full Scale IQ. Sex differences for IQs and subtest scores are compared with those in the United States. In the second study a sample of 18 to 35 year old males obtained a higher Full Scale IQ than females by 3.44 IQ points. Key Words: IQ; Russia; sex differences; WAIS

WIDE RANGE ACHIEVEMENT TEST IN AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: TEST-RETEST STABILITY.

The principal goal of this descriptive study was to establish the test-retest stability of the Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic subtest scores of the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-3) across two administrations in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Participants (N = 31) were males ages 6-22 years (M = 15.2, SD = 4.0) who were part of a larger ongoing longitudinal study of brain development in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (N = 185). Test-retest stability for all three subtests remained consistent across administration periods (M = 31.8 mo., SD = 4.1). Age at time of administration, time between administrations, and test form did not significantly influence test-retest stability. Results indicated that for research involving individuals with autism spectrum disorder with a full scale intelligence quotient above 75, the WRAT-3 Spelling and Arithmetic subtests have acceptable test-retest stability over time and the Reading subtest has moderate test-retest stability over time.

ADHD inattentive symptoms mediate the relationship between intelligence and academic performance in children aged 6-14.

Fluid intelligence and the behavioral problems of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are related to academic performance, but how this association occurs is unclear. This study aimed to assess mediation and moderation models that test possible pathways of influence between these factors. Sixty-two children with ADHD and 33 age-matched, typically developing students were evaluated with Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices and the spelling and arithmetic subtests of the Brazilian School Achievement Test. Dimensional ADHD symptomatology was reported by parents. Our findings suggest that fluid intelligence has a significant impact on academic tests through inattention. The inattentive dimension was the principal behavioral source of influence, also accounting for the association of hyperactive-impulsive manifestations with school achievement. This cognitive-to-behavioral influence path seems to be independent of diagnosis related group, and gender, but lower socioeconomic status might increase its strength. Fluid intelligence is a relevant factor in the influence of ADHD behavioral symptoms on academic performance, but its impact is indirect. Therefore, early identification of both fluid intelligence and inattentive symptoms is of the utmost importance to prevent impaired academic performance and future difficulties in functioning.

Young children's use of derived fact strategies for addition and subtraction

Forty-four children between 6;0 and 7;11 took part in a study of derived fact strategy use. They were assigned to addition and subtraction levels on the basis of calculation pretests. They were then given Dowker's (1998) test of derived fact strategies in addition, involving strategies based on the Identity, Commutativity, Addend +1, Addend −1, and addition/subtraction Inverse principles; and test of derived fact strategies in subtraction, involving strategies based on the Identity, Minuend +1, Minuend −1, Subtrahend +1, Subtrahend −1, Complement and addition/subtraction Inverse principles. The exact arithmetic problems given varied according to the child's previously assessed calculation level and were selected to be just a little too difficult for the child to solve unaided. Children were given the answer to a problem and then asked to solve another problem that could be solved quickly by using this answer, together with the principle being assessed. The children also took the WISC Arithmetic subtest. Strategies differed greatly in difficulty, with Identity being the easiest, and the Inverse and Complement principles being most difficult. The Subtrahend +1 and Subtrahend −1 problems often elicited incorrect strategies based on an overextension of the principles of addition to subtraction. It was concluded that children may have difficulty with understanding and applying the relationships between addition and subtraction. Derived fact strategy use was significantly related to both calculation level and to WISC Arithmetic scaled score.

WISC‐III Cognitive Profiles in Children with Developmental Dyslexia: Specific Cognitive Disability and Diagnostic Utility

This study analysed the usefulness of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition in identifying specific cognitive impairments that are linked to developmental dyslexia (DD) and the diagnostic utility of the most common profiles in a sample of 100 Portuguese children (50 dyslexic and 50 normal readers) between the ages of 8 and 12 years. Children with DD exhibited significantly lower scores in the Verbal Comprehension Index (except the Vocabulary subtest), Freedom from Distractibility Index (FDI) and Processing Speed Index subtests, with larger effect sizes than normal readers in Information, Arithmetic and Digit Span. The Verbal-Performance IQs discrepancies, Bannatyne pattern and the presence of FDI; Arithmetic, Coding, Information and Digit Span subtests (ACID) and Symbol Search, Coding, Arithmetic and Digit Span subtests (SCAD) profiles (full or partial) in the lowest subtests revealed a low diagnostic utility. However, the receiver operating characteristic curve and the optimal cut-off score analyses of the composite ACID; FDI and SCAD profiles scores showed moderate accuracy in correctly discriminating dyslexic readers from normal ones. These results suggested that in the context of a comprehensive assessment, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition provides some useful information about the presence of specific cognitive disabilities in DD. Practitioner Points. Children with developmental dyslexia revealed significant deficits in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition subtests that rely on verbal abilities, processing speed and working memory. The composite Arithmetic, Coding, Information and Digit Span subtests (ACID); Freedom from Distractibility Index and Symbol Search, Coding, Arithmetic and Digit Span subtests (SCAD) profile scores showed moderate accuracy in correctly discriminating dyslexics from normal readers. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition may provide some useful information about the presence of specific cognitive disabilities in developmental dyslexia.

Technical and Practical Issues in the Structure and Clinical Invariance of the Wechsler Scales

This discussion article addresses issues related to expansion of the Wechsler model from four to five factors; multiple broad CHC abilities measured by the Arithmetic subtest; advantages and disadvantages of including complex tasks requiring integration of multiple broad abilities when measuring intelligence; limitations of factor analysis, which constrain test developers to creating specific broad and narrow abilities as opposed to integrative tasks; implications from brain imaging research showing the critical role of neurological pathways that integrate brain regions; close relationship of the fluid reasoning factor to g, and the inadequacies of factor analytically driven statistical definitions of g in the development of improved models of intelligence. In this rejoinder to the commentaries in this special issue on structural models of the WAIS-IV and WISC-IV, the advantages and disadvantages of Schmid–Leiman’s transformation, which removes the effects of g on the broad abilities, and the use of nested or bifactor models in evaluating models of intelligence are also discussed.

WAIS-IV and Clinical Validation of the Four- and Five-Factor Interpretative Approaches

The fourth edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) is a revised and substantially updated version of its predecessor. The purposes of this research were to determine the constructs measured by the test and the consistency of measurement across large normative and clinical samples. Competing higher order WAIS-IV four- and five-factor models were analyzed using the WAIS-IV’s sample of 1,800 normative adults and 411 clinical adults. When all 15 WAIS-IV subtests were considered, both four- and five-factor models were suitable, but the five-factor model provided a better fit. The WAIS-IV PRI differentiated into two composites as follows: POI(Gv) consisting of Block Design, Visual Puzzles and Picture Completion; and FRI(Gf) consisting Matrix Reasoning, Arithmetic and Figure Weights. The five-factor solution included Quantitative Reasoning (RQ), consisting of Arithmetic and Figure Weights, as a narrow ability subsumed under FRI(Gf). Arithmetic, Vocabulary, and Figure Weights subtests had the highest g loadings. Cancellation had the lowest g loading. The WAIS-IV generally demonstrated full factor invariance between clinical and nonclinical samples.

Cognitive ability in old age may be determined in the womb

Commentary on: Tuovinen S, Raikkonen K, Kajantie E, et al. Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy and cognitive decline in the offspring up to old age. Neurology 2012;79:1578–82.[OpenUrl][1][CrossRef][2] In the past few...

Assessing the intelligence of children with chronic kidney diseases

To evaluate the level of intelligence in children with chronic kidney diseases (CKDs), 12 children with CKD stage 5 on regular hemodialysis, 12 children in the predialysis stage, and 12 as controls were assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Mean scores on the verbal, performance, and full scale IQ were significantly lower in the predialysis and dialysis children than in the healthy children, while the mean score on the arithmetic subtests was significantly lower in the predialysis children than in the dialysis group. In conclusion, a better understanding of the neurocognitive function in children with CKDs is a critical element to be ascertained early with proper assessment programs so as to design appropriate educational interventions for this handicapping illness.

Number Processing and Calculation in Brazilian Children Aged 7-12 Years

Numerical cognition is based on two components - number processing and calculation. Its development is influenced by biological, cognitive, educational, and cultural factors. The objectives of the present study were to: i) assess number processing and calculation in Brazilian children aged 7-12 years from public schools using the Zareki-R (Battery of neuropsychological tests for number processing and calculation in children, Revised; von Aster & Dellatolas, 2006) in order to obtain normative data for Portuguese speakers; ii) identify how environment, age, and gender influences the development of these mathematical skills; iii) investigate the construct validity of the Zareki-R by the contrast with the Arithmetic subtest of WISC-III. The sample included 172 children, both genders, divided in two groups: urban (N = 119) and rural (N = 53) assessed by the Zareki-R. Rural children presented lower scores in one aspect of number processing; children aged 7-8 years demonstrated an inferior global score than older; boys presented a superior performance in both number processing and calculation. Construct validity of Zareki-R was demonstrated by high to moderate correlations with Arithmetic subtest of WISC-III. The Zareki-R therefore is a suitable instrument to assess the development of mathematical skills, which is influenced by factors such as environment, age, and gender.

School Achievement Test: Normative data for a representative sample of elementary school children.

The present study established norms for the spelling and arithmetic subtests of the School Achievement Test (Teste do Desempenho Escolar [TDE]) in two Brazilian cities located in the state of Minas Gerais and compared the results with those obtained from the original normative sample. A stratified proportional sample of 1,034 students from Belo Horizonte and Mariana, from the 1st to 6th grades, was selected. The participants were assessed by the spelling and arithmetic subtests of the TDE. Significant differences were found between the results from Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul, with moderate to high effect sizes. Significant differences were found in percentiles and classification parameters. The educational performance of the children from Minas Gerais was generally classified as less than expected (i.e., inferior) when the original norms were used as a classification parameter. Considering the high variability of educational data in different Brazilian regions, using norms for educational assessment based on only one Brazilian region is inappropriate.

Cognitive and behavioural findings in children with frontal lobe epilepsy

BackgroundFrontal Lobe Epilepsy (FLE) is the second most frequent type of partial epilepsy and its onset is generally in childhood. Though cognitive and behavioural impairments have been described as co-morbid disorders in epilepsy, their extent in FLE, particularly in children, remains unknown. AimsIn this study, we assess cognitive skills and behaviour in a cohort of paediatric FLE patients. MethodsWe measured the performance of 71 children with cryptogenic FLE on intelligence tests, neuropsychological tests, and behavioural questionnaires. Age-dependent normative values were used for reference. Results were related to epilepsy-factors including age at epilepsy onset, duration of epilepsy, seizure frequency, localisation of the epileptic focus and drug load. ResultsPaediatric FLE patients performed worse on intellectual and neuropsychological tests compared to reference values, and had a delay in school achievement. The performance of patients was typically worse on tasks measuring visual-spatial functions, memory, psychomotor speed and alertness. High seizure frequency was associated with lower scores on the arithmetic subtest of the intelligence scale; the other epilepsy-factors had no statistically significant influence on intelligence test or neuropsychological test outcome. Behavioural problems included attention problems, anxiety and internalising behaviour. These were not significantly related to epilepsy-factors. ConclusionsChildren with cryptogenic FLE show a broad range of cognitive and behavioural impairments, compared to reference values. While high seizure frequency may affect performance on selected cognitive measures, other epilepsy-factors do not seem to influence cognition and behaviour. Study of micro-structural or functional brain abnormalities that underlie these cognitive and behavioural impairments are warranted.

A 'learning platform' approach to outcome measurement in fragile X syndrome: a preliminary psychometric study.

Clinical trials of medications to alleviate the cognitive and behavioural symptoms of individuals with fragile X syndrome (FXS) are now underway. However, there are few reliable, valid and/or sensitive outcome measures available that can be directly administered to individuals with FXS. The majority of assessments employed in clinical trials may be suboptimal for individuals with intellectual disability (ID) because they require face-to-face interaction with an examiner, taxing administration periods, and do not provide reinforcement and/or feedback during the test. We therefore examined the psychometric properties of a new computerised 'learning platform' approach to outcome measurement in FXS. A brief computerised test, incorporated into the Discrete Trial Trainer©- a commercially available software program designed for children with ID - was administered to 13 girls with FXS, 12 boys with FXS and 15 matched ID controls aged 10 to 23 years (mental age = 4 to 12 years). The software delivered automated contingent access to reinforcement, feedback, token delivery and prompting procedures (if necessary) on each trial to facilitate responding. The primary outcome measure was the participant's learning rate, derived from the participant's cumulative record of correct responses. All participants were able to complete the test and floor effects appeared to be minimal. Learning rates averaged approximately five correct responses per minute, ranging from one to eight correct responses per minute in each group. Test-retest reliability of the learning rates was 0.77 for girls with FXS, 0.90 for boys with FXS and 0.90 for matched ID controls. Concurrent validity with raw scores obtained on the Arithmetic subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III was 0.35 for girls with FXS, 0.80 for boys with FXS and 0.56 for matched ID controls. The learning rates were also highly sensitive to change, with effect sizes of 1.21, 0.89 and 1.47 in each group respectively following 15 to 20, 15-min sessions of intensive discrete trial training conducted over 1.5 days. These results suggest that a learning platform approach to outcome measurement could provide investigators with a reliable, valid and highly sensitive measure to evaluate treatment efficacy, not only for individuals with FXS but also for individuals with other ID.

Variability in Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV Subtest Performance Across Age

Normal Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)-IV performance relative to average normative scores alone can be an oversimplification as this fails to recognize disparate subtest heterogeneity that occurs with increasing age. The purpose of the present study is to characterize the patterns of raw score change and associated variability on WAIS-IV subtests across age groupings. Raw WAIS-IV subtest means and standard deviations for each age group were tabulated from the WAIS-IV normative manual along with the coefficient of variation (CV), a measure of score dispersion calculated by dividing the standard deviation by the mean and multiplying by 100. The CV further informs the magnitude of variability represented by each standard deviation. Raw mean scores predictably decreased across age groups. Increased variability was noted in Perceptual Reasoning and Processing Speed Index subtests, as Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Completion, Symbol Search, and Coding had CV percentage increases ranging from 56% to 98%. In contrast, Working Memory and Verbal Comprehension subtests were more homogeneous with Digit Span, Comprehension, Information, and Similarities percentage of the mean increases ranging from 32% to 43%. Little change in the CV was noted on Cancellation, Arithmetic, Letter/Number Sequencing, Figure Weights, Visual Puzzles, and Vocabulary subtests (<14%). A thorough understanding of age-related subtest variability will help to identify test limitations as well as further our understanding of cognitive domains which remain relatively steady versus those which steadily decline.

Sensibilidade do WISC-III na identificação do Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção/Hiperatividade(TDAH)

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by decreased attention span, impulsivity and hyperactivity, affecting children, adolescents and adults. There are several tools that can aid in the diagnosis of this disorder and one of them is the index of resistance to distractibility (IRD) of the WISC-III Digit Span and Arithmetic subtests. Objective: To evaluate, through the Wechsler Intelligence Scale III (WISC III), the intelligence quotient (IQ) Global, Verbal and Performance and measure the performance indices in Factorials and identifying whether or not the presence of ADHD. Method: Design quantitative transversal. Sample of 80 participants, aged 6-15 years, 26 females and 54 males. Results: Of the participants assessed, 67.5% had ADHD. The majority of this percentage had an IQ in the medium term, and those who did not have ADHD have a much higher IQ. Conclusion: The WISC-III is shown to be sensitive in the diagnosis of children with ADHD and is a useful tool to assist in the evaluation of children with this disorder.