Argan Oil Research Articles

Rapid detection of argan oil adulteration by frying oils using laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy combined with chemometrics tools

There is a contentious need for robust and rapid methodologies for maintaining the authenticity of foods. The aim of this study was to detect and quantify argan oil adulteration using Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy coupled with chemometric methods. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) were used to assess argan oil authenticity; PCA was used to classify samples according to their quality and the PLS model to determine the amount of adulterants in pure argan oil. The correlation coefficient of the obtained model was about 0.99, with Root Mean Square Error of Prediction (RMSEP) and Standard Error of Prediction (SEP) of 2%. This study demonstrated the feasibility of LIF spectroscopy combined with chemometric tools to identify adulterants in pure argan oil from a percentage of adulteration, of 0.35 % without the need to destruct samples.

Co-processed [Argania spinosa L. (Skeels)] oil with thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) leaves—New product optimization

Substituting synthetic antioxidants with naturally occurring antioxidants has been in the focus of several recent studies. Medicinal and aromatic plants are known to contain a wide array of bioactive compounds. These are endowed with an important antioxidant capacity and other biological activities. This work aimed at assessing potentiality of thyme leaves (TL) as natural additive to enrich and improve oxidative stability of argan oil (AO). To do this, three different proportions (2, 5, and 10%) of TL were added to argan kernels (edible part of fruits) during AO mechanical extraction. AO physicochemical and sensory parameters were evaluated. Such parameters consisted of basic quality indices, fatty acids, sensory evaluation, antioxidant capacity using DPPH• and FRAP assays, pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids), as well as total phenolic compounds (simple phenolic compounds (SPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC)). The obtained results revealed an improvement of enriched AO physicochemical traits. In fact; at the end of the experiment, there was an increase of pigments, SPC, TFC, antioxidant capacity but a decrease of peroxide value and total oxidation of enriched AO (EAO) as compared to unenriched AO (UAO) in a dose-dependent manner. Regarding fatty acids, generally there are no significant changes between enriched and unenriched AO. Sensory analysis is satisfactory with a reduction of rancidity in EAO depending on TL proportion. However, EAO was marked by high scores of thyme color, flavor, and smell especially with TL at 5 and 10%. Based on the outcomes of this work, it could be concluded that enrichment of AO using TL is a good alternative to synthetic antioxidants giving rise to a new functional product.

Argan Oil Trade and Access to Benefit Sharing: A Matter of Economic Survival for Rural Women of the Souss Massa, Morocco

Poverty eradication, environmental conservation, and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals cannot be achieved without the input and participation of disadvantaged communities in developing mitigation strategies. Over the last few decades, the markets for natural resources as niche products have grown exponentially. Morocco’s production and international sales of argan oil are set to exceed current figures within the decade. We interviewed presidents of cooperatives in several villages in the Souss Massa region of Morocco to assess the current status of the argan oil trade, in particular women’s roles in production, their economic status, and whether they have access to benefit sharing (ABS). Our results reveal that control over the argan oil trade has shifted into intermediaries that supply larger corporations, and that the survival of cooperatives and women’s access to vital income are increasingly threatened. We argue thatthe implementation of ABS is essential to preserve women’s access to income and their traditional knowledge associated with oil extraction processes and to ensure the conservation of argan ecosystems as prescribed by the Nagoya Protocol.

Moroccan extra virgin argan oil authentication by using ultraviolet–visible and front face fluorescence spectroscopies combined with different descriptive and predictive chemometric tools

Moroccan extra virgin argan oil authentication by using ultraviolet–visible and front face fluorescence spectroscopies combined with different descriptive and predictive chemometric tools

Argania spinosa Leaves and Branches: Antiaggregant, Anticoagulant, Antioxidant Activities and Bioactive Compounds Quantification

Thrombocytes, also known as platelets, are crucial in maintaining the balance between blood clotting. Platelet hyperactivity and oxidative stress are the primary factors contributing to cardiovascular complications. Antithrombotic therapy remains one of the most effective treatments, but various potential side effects hinder its effectiveness, including the risk of haemorrhage. Intense research has been conducted on medicinal plants to discover the natural antithrombotic compounds. Argania spinosa, commonly known as the argan tree or argan oil tree, is a native species of southwestern Morocco. This study evaluated the primary and secondary hemostasis and antioxidant activity of leaf and branch aqueous extracts of A. spinosa and also assessed the phytochemical composition of these extracts. Platelet aggregation assay was performed using washed platelets stimulated with thrombin. For plasmatic coagulation, activated partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time were measured using the poor plasma method. Bleeding time was evaluated by inducing bleeding at the tip of a mouse tail. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was determined through the DPPH, β-carotene, and FRAP methods. The presence or absence of the secondary metabolites was carried out with the help of specific reagents, and the quantitative analysis was carried out using spectrophotometric and colorimetric methods. The study results revealed the presence of phenols, total flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, tannins, and coumarins type of secondary metabolites in both types of aqueous extracts and a higher concentration of these was recorded in the leaves extracts. Both aqueous extracts significantly reduced in vitro thrombin-induced platelet aggregation, extended tail bleeding time, prolonged activated partial thromboplastin and prothrombin time and exhibited remarkable antioxidant activity. The leaf extract of A. spinosa exerts significant effects against thrombotic manifestations and could be a promising source of new antithrombotic compounds.

Antioxidant Effects of Argan Oil and Olive Oil against Iron-Induced Oxidative Stress: In Vivo and In Vitro Approaches.

Recently, the study of the protective powers of medicinal plants has become the focus of several studies. Attention has been focused on the identification of new molecules with antioxidant and chelating properties to counter reactive oxygen species (ROS) involved as key elements in several pathologies. Considerable attention is given to argan oil (AO) and olive oil (OO) due to their particular composition and preventive properties. Our study aimed to determine the content of AO and OO on phenolic compounds, chlorophylls, and carotenoid pigments and their antioxidant potential by FRAP and DPPH tests. Thus, several metallic elements can induce oxidative stress, as a consequence of the formation of ROS. Iron is one of these metal ions, which participates in the generation of free radicals, especially OH from H2O2 via the Fenton reaction, initiating oxidative stress. To study the antioxidant potential of AO and OO, we evaluated their preventives effects against oxidative stress induced by ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) in the protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis and mice. Then, we evaluated the activities of the enzymatic (superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx)) and metabolite markers (lipid peroxidation (MDA) and glutathione (GSH)) of the antioxidant balance. The results of the antioxidant compounds show that both oils contain phenolic compounds and pigments. Moreover, AO and OO exhibit antioxidant potential across FRAP and DPPH assays. On the other hand, the results in Tetrahymena pyriformis and mice show a variation in the level of iron-changed SOD and GPx activities and MDA and GSH levels. By contrast, treating Tetrahymena pyriformis and mice with argan and olive oils shows significant prevention in the SOD and GPx activities. These results reveal that the iron-changed ROS imbalance can be counteracted by AO and OO, which is probably related to their composition, especially their high content of polyphenols, sterols, and tocopherols, which is underlined by their antioxidant activities.

Field evaluation of different eco-friendly alternative control methods against Panonychus citri [Acari: Tetranychidae] spider mite and its predators in citrus orchards

Abstract Biotic stress caused by pests on citrus trees has become a major problem for ecologists around the world, hence the need to develop ecological approaches to surmount this stress. To evaluate the effectiveness of diverse control methods on the pest Panonychus citri and its predators, Euseius stipulatus, Phytoseiulus persimilis, and Typhlodromus sp. Different treatments were applied in orchards planted by Citrus clementina in the Gharb area of Morocco (T0 = treated by water only, T1 = spirodiclofen (the molecular formula is C21H24Cl2O4). 0.5 L/ha, T2 = 5% black soap 125 L/ha, Its ingredients are: argan oil, olive oil, black olive, salt, water, vegetable potash, without chemicals. T3 = mixture of two detergents; Oni product is composed of the following ingredients (sodium C12-13 parenth sulfate, and sodium C14-17 alkyl sec sulfonate) and Tide product with the following ingredients (sodium C10-16 alkylbenzene sulfonate, propylene glycol and sodium borate). Results obtained during the follow-up period showed that the black soap, spirodiclofen, and two detergent treatments provided a decrease in the P. citri population in comparison with plot treated by water during the whole monitoring period. We found 5,044 mobile forms of P. citri in the plot treated by water only, 1,544 forms in the plot treated with spirodiclofen, 3,002 forms in the plot treated with black soap, and 1,567 mobile forms in the plot treated with two detergents. This study demonstrated that all three treatments had a negative effect on the predators that survived in comparison to the control (T0), while the negative impact of spirodiclofen on beneficial phytoseiid mites was greater than that of black soap and detergents. However, the increase in temperature according to the follow-up weeks showed a significant effect on the evolution of the density of the studied mites. Unfortunately, the chemical products like spirodiclofen used against various citrus pests are considered toxic to phytoseiids and to the agro-ecosystem in general. This comparison aims to detect the effectiveness of black soap and mixtures of two detergents on P. citri and their impacts on its predators: E. stipulatus, P. persimilis, and Typhlodromus sp. to replace the use of pesticides by these alternative methods, which remain effective and environmentally friendly.

Innovation of argan (Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels) products and byproducts for sustainable development of rural communities in Morocco. A systematic literature review

AbstractArgan tree is endemic of Moroccan arid regions, providing socioeconomic and cultural benefits since ancient times. This study identifies the emerging threats for the argan forest, and the opportunities related to the innovative uses of argan products and byproducts. Argan forest is facing pressure from overgrazing, demand for argan oil and nuts, and land degradation, despite its recognition as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and the inclusion in the FAO Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) Programme. Innovative use and recycling of the waste deriving from argan nuts processing, offer promising opportunities to support a local bio-economy. Argan press cake can be used to integrate livestock feeding, to extract sudan dyes or to produce bioplastics. Argan nut shells can be used to produce environment-friendly and low-cost purifying materials and biochar, or as a source of bioenergy. Argan pulp can be used for bioethanol production or to obtain natural insect repellent. Despite these promising opportunities, the socio-economic impact of innovative uses is still limited. Local population is not sufficiently involved in management and development strategies. To support the sustainable development of local communities, it is necessary to promote a participative approach as well as training and product differentiation among argan women cooperatives.

Evaluation of Multivariate Filters on Vibrational Spectroscopic Fingerprints for the PLS-DA and SIMCA Classification of Argan Oils from Four Moroccan Regions.

This study aimed to develop an analytical method to determine the geographical origin of Moroccan Argan oil through near-infrared (NIR) or mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopic fingerprints. However, the classification may be problematic due to the spectral similarity of the components in the samples. Therefore, unsupervised and supervised classification methods-including principal component analysis (PCA), Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA)-were evaluated to distinguish between Argan oils from four regions. The spectra of 93 samples were acquired and preprocessed using both standard preprocessing methods and multivariate filters, such as External Parameter Orthogonalization, Generalized Least Squares Weighting and Orthogonal Signal Correction, to improve the models. Their accuracy, precision, sensitivity, and selectivity were used to evaluate the performance of the models. SIMCA and PLS-DA models generated after standard preprocessing failed to correctly classify all samples. However, successful models were produced after using multivariate filters. The NIR and MIR classification models show an equivalent accuracy. The PLS-DA models outperformed the SIMCA with 100% accuracy, specificity, sensitivity and precision. In conclusion, the studied multivariate filters are applicable on the spectroscopic fingerprints to geographically identify the Argan oils in routine monitoring, significantly reducing analysis costs and time.

Apricot- A New Source of Chemically Active Constituents: A Medicinal Overview

Apricot is the member of Rosaceae family, belonging to the Prunus Lannesiana, genus of Prunophora Focke, subgenus and section of Armeniaca (Lam) Koch section. commonly apricot trees are small to medium-sized that can reach a height of 14 metres. The wood and spurs of a one-year-old Prunus are thinner, twiggy, and have a shorter lifespan. Apricot is cultivated over a long time ago and it have various chemical and physiological activity, it contains essential amino acids made up of 33–35% of the overall amino acids, in the apricot kernel, Arginine (21.7–30.5) and leucine (16.2–21.6) were the two most important necessary amino acids (mmol/100 g meal), whereas glutamic acid (49.9–68.0) was the most common non-essential amino acid. Apricots has many medicinal values and are also used in a various way, including fresh fruit, vinegar, liquor, wine, flavouring agents in food or baby food, sauce, juice, jam and dried fruit for canning. The dried fruit and concentrate fruit juice of the Japanese apricot is used to make a cancer-preventive and cancer-curing beverage. The apricot kernels are used to make cosmetics, medications, and perfumes, while the pits are utilised for making fuel. A liquid soap containing apricot kernel oil is used to treat dermatitis. In addition, bitter apricot is used in several bakery & confectionery items such as cakes pies cookies pastries along with their derivatives to enhance their taste and aroma. It has high potassium content which helps in controlling blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The product also contains fibre, iron, calcium, and vitamin C & A which helps in lowering the risk of cancer and heart diseases. Apricot kernel oil has been found effective for skin conditions on its own or blended with other carrier oils like sunflower seed oil or argan oil due largely lessening inflammation caused by acne lesions blackheads pimples pustules sores rashes etc.

An eco-friendly strategy for preparing lignin esters as filler in materials for removal of argan oil and sunflower oil

Oil spills represent a serious threat for the ecosystem and human health. Materials with high porosity have been proven to be efficient as oil adsorbents. In this paper, new materials based on xanthan, lignin and their esters have been studied. The novelty of the present work consists in the esterification of lignin through an enzymatically catalyzed reaction. Lignin esters were added into a xanthan matrix to obtain adsorbent materials. FTIR, C13 NMR and XPS analyses have confirmed the success of the lignin esterification reaction. Materials based on xanthan, lignin and their esters were obtained. Their mechanical properties were evaluated. The adsorption of altered argan oil and sunflower oil onto the obtained materials was investigated. Experiments were carried out at different amounts of oil. For the kinetic study, measurements at different contact time were also done. It was found that the studied materials retained over 60% of the total oil quantity. Equilibrium data were well fitted to Henry, Langmuir and Harkin-Jura isotherm models.

Perbandingan Perlindungan Minyak Jintan Hitam, Minyak Argan dan Minyak Zaitun terhadap Enzim Hati Tikus Akibat Diet Tinggi Lemak

High-fat diet has become one of the risk factors of liver dysfunction due to accumulation of fat in the liver cells. This disorder might be triggered by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) activity with high-fat consumption. This study aimed to compare protective effect of natural antioxidants black cumin oil, argan oil and olive oil on liver function in wistar rats fed with high-fat diet. Male wistar rats (n = 24) were divided into four treatment groups. Group 1 (negative control) was not given any oil treatment (0,5 ml/g bw), group 2 was given black cumin oil (0,4 ml/g bw), group 3 was given argan oil (0,5 ml/g bw) and group 4 was given olive oil (0,5 ml/g bw). All rats were fed a high-fat diet of 10 gr/day for 2 months. The analysis of liver function tests was performed before and after treatment. With high-fat diet, the negative controls had SGOT of 93.05 ± 47.91 UI/I and SGPT of 43.10 ± 14.64 UI/l. Administration of black cumin oil markedly reduced SGOT (62.05 ± 30.67 UI/l) and SGPT levels (28.81 ± 10.60 UI/l) (P0.05). Argan oil can not reduce SGOT levels (97.92 ± 35.07 UI/l) but can reduce SGPT levels (51.67 ± 15.84 UI/l). Olive oil can not reduce SGOT levels (67.38 ± 29.31 UI/l) but can reduce SGPT levels (50.19 ± 9.70 UI/l). It was concluded that administration of black cumin is more effective to reduce SGOT and SGPT levels in rats with high-fat diet compared to argan oil and olive oil treatments.

Enrichment of Argan [Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels] Oil with Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Stigma Powder and Induced Changes in Oil Quality Attributes

Argan oil (AO) is a globally reputed vegetable oil thanks to its nutritional and cosmetic value. AO oxidation induces changes that result in a low quality. In this research, we aimed at fortifying AO using saffron stigmas powder (SSP) and assessing its quality. Dried and grounded saffron stigmas were added to AO at three different concentrations (0.2, 0.5, and 1%). All enriched AOs were stored for six consecutive months under two conditions, namely, light and darkness. Quality indices including free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), and specific extinction coefficients K232 and K270 as well as profiling of fatty acids, sterols, and tocopherols were monitored on a monthly basis. Our outcomes reveal that the addition of SSP improved AO oxidation parameters by significantly decreasing ( p < 0.05 ) FFA, PV, K232, and K270 of enriched AO (EAO) as compared to unenriched AO (UAO) especially when AO samples are stored in darkness. Such decrease of oxidation parameters was SSP dose-dependent as a general trend. However, AO enrichment did not induce significant changes ( p < 0.05 ) in fatty acid and sterol profiles. Furthermore, the quality parameter values of EAO and UAO did not exceed the limits set by the Moroccan standard throughout the storage period. Sensory analysis results indicate that EAO showed a low rancidity but high scores of saffron smell, flavor, and color as compared to UAO especially with SSP 1%. In conclusion, AO enrichment using SSP could be used to improve AO oxidative stability and its nutritional value.

Valorization of Waste from Argan Seeds for Polyhydroxybutyrate Production Using Bacterial Strains Isolated from Argan Soils.

The aim of this work was to study the valorization of argan seed pulp, a waste material obtained from argan oil extraction, for the biosynthesis of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). A new species that showed the metabolic capacity for the conversion of argan waste into the bio-based polymer was isolated from an argan crop located in Teroudant, a southwestern region of Morocco, where the arid soil is exploited for goat grazing. The PHB accumulation efficiency of this new species was compared to the previously identified species 1B belonging to the genus Sphingomonas, and results were reported as dry cell weight residual biomass and PHB final yield measured. Temperature, incubation time, pH, NaCl concentration, nitrogen sources, residue concentrations, and culture medium volumes were analyzed with the aim of obtaining a maximum accumulation of PHB. UV-visible spectrophotometry and FTIR analysis confirmed that PHB was present in the material extracted from the bacterial culture. The results of this wide investigation indicated that the new isolated species 2D1 had a higher efficiency in PHB production compared to the previously identified strain 1B, which was isolated from a contaminated argan soil in Teroudant. PHB final yield of the two bacterial species, i.e., the new isolated and 1B, cultivated under optimal culture conditions, in 500 mL MSM enriched with 3% argan waste, were 21.40% (5.91 ± 0.16 g/L) and 8.16% (1.92 ± 0.23 g/L), respectively. For the new isolated strain, the result of the UV-visible spectrum indicates the absorbance at 248 nm, while the FTIR spectrum showed peaks at 1726 cm-1 and 1270 cm-1: these characteristic peaks indicated the presence of PHB in the extract. The data from the species 1B UV-visible and FTIR spectra were previously reported and were used in this study for a correlation analysis. Furthermore, additional peaks, uncharacteristic of standard PHB, suggest the presence of impurities (e.g., cell debris, solvent residues, biomass residues) that persisted after extraction. Therefore, a further enhancement of the sample purification during extraction is recommended for more accuracy in the chemical characterization. If 470,000 tons of argan fruit waste can be produced annually, and 3% of waste is consumed in 500 mL culture by 2D1 to produce 5.91 g/L (21.40%) of the bio-based polymer PHB, it can be estimated that the amount of putative PHB that can be extracted annually from the total argan fruit waste is about 2300 tons.

Allergy to Argan Oil Confirmed by Oral Challenge Test in Children: Case Report

Aims: The prevalence of allergy to Argan oil is increasing over the years. It manifests itself in an extremely polymorphous way and responds to all possible routes of exposure: ingestion, contact or inhalation. The provocation test remains the key examination to confirm an allergy to Argan oil.
 Presentation of Case: We report the observation of a six-year-old girl presenting with immediate urticaria after ingestion of argan oil.
 Discussion: The allergological investigation points to sensitisation of the skin only, with positive prick tests. An oral provocation test was performed and published for the first time to confirm the diagnosis of allergy to argan oil in our patient.
 Conclusion: Argan is widely used for its benefits in the cosmetic industry and as a food ingredient. Further studies are needed to explore the mechanisms of sensitisation to Argan oil.

Comparative study of the potentiality of front-face fluorescence, near- and mid-infrared spectroscopies to authenticate extra virgin argan oil using different chemometric tools

Comparative study of the potentiality of front-face fluorescence, near- and mid-infrared spectroscopies to authenticate extra virgin argan oil using different chemometric tools

Quality Control and Authentication of Argan Oils: Application of Advanced Analytical Techniques

In addition to the nutritional and therapeutic benefits, Argan oil is praised for its unique bio-ecological and botanic interest. It has been used for centuries to treat cardiovascular issues, diabetes, and skin infections, as well as for its anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties. Argan oil is widely commercialized as a result of these characteristics. However, falsifiers deliberately blend Argan oil with cheaper vegetable oils to make economic profits. This reduces the quality and might result in health issues for consumers. Analytical techniques that are rapid, precise, and accurate are employed to monitor its quality, safety, and authenticity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of studies on the quality assessment of Moroccan Argan oil using both untargeted and targeted approaches. To extract relevant information on quality and adulteration, the analytical data are coupled with chemometric techniques.

Nutritional Assessment and Comparison of the Composition of Oil Extracted from Argan Nuts Collected from a Plantation and Two Natural Forest Stands of ARGAN Trees

Argan oil (AO), extracted from the argan tree’s fruits, is principally composed of mono-unsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, tocopherols, and sterols. This unique chemical composition is likely to be responsible for its beneficial effects. The argan tree (Argania spinosa) grows endemically in the southwest of Morocco. This study aimed to evaluate the chemical composition of three types of argan oil from three geographical locations: argan oil extracted from argan nuts collected from a plantation (Casablanca, AOC) and two forest stands of argan trees growing naturally in their native environment of the south-west of Morocco ((regions of Essaouira (AOE) and Taroudant (AOT)). The composition of the three oils corresponds to the known composition of argan oil in terms of fatty acids and unsaponifiable fraction. The chemical analyses revealed that the argan oil extracted from the plantations (AOC) is significantly richer in linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and tocopherols compared to the oil from the two natural stands (AOE and AOT) of argan trees. These results suggest that it is possible to facilitate an assisted migration of the argan tree outside its natural area into sites exposed to sea spray without affecting the quality of its argan oil.

Two Argan Oil Phytosterols, Schottenol and Spinasterol, Attenuate Oxidative Stress and Restore LPS-Dysregulated Peroxisomal Functions in Acox1-/- and Wild-Type BV-2 Microglial Cells.

Oxidative stress and inflammation are the key players in neuroinflammation, in which microglia dysfunction plays a central role. Previous studies suggest that argan oil attenuates oxidative stress, inflammation, and peroxisome dysfunction in mouse brains. In this study, we explored the effects of two major argan oil (AO) phytosterols, Schottenol (Schot) and Spinasterol (Spina), on oxidative stress, inflammation, and peroxisomal dysfunction in two murine microglial BV-2 cell lines, wild-ype (Wt) and Acyl-CoA oxidase 1 (Acox1)-deficient cells challenged with LPS treatment. Herein, we used an MTT test to reveal no cytotoxicity for both phytosterols with concentrations up to 5 µM. In the LPS-activated microglial cells, cotreatment with each of these phytosterols caused a significant decrease in intracellular ROS production and the NO level released in the culture medium. Additionally, Schot and Spina were able to attenuate the LPS-dependent strong induction of Il-1β and Tnf-α mRNA levels, as well as the iNos gene and protein expression in both Wt and Acox1-/- microglial cells. On the other hand, LPS treatment impacted both the peroxisomal antioxidant capacity and the fatty acid oxidation pathway. However, both Schot and Spina treatments enhanced ACOX1 activity in the Wt BV-2 cells and normalized the catalase activity in both Wt and Acox1-/- microglial cells. These data suggest that Schot and Spina can protect cells from oxidative stress and inflammation and their harmful consequences for peroxisomal functions and the homeostasis of microglial cells. Collectively, our work provides a compelling argument for the protective mechanisms of two major argan oil phytosterols against LPS-induced brain neuroinflammation.

The Study of the Heterogeneity of the Qualities of Argan Oils and Pomaces from Different Cooperatives in the Essaouira Region (Morocco)

In this study, a comparison of the intra-regional variation in the quality of Argan oil and pomace collected from 12 cooperatives in the Essaouira region (Morocco) during the COVID-19 period was carried out. All studied Argan pomaces together with the extraction solvents showed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) in the total phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and tannins contents. The proteins, residual oils, total sugars, and total reducing sugars contents in the collected pomaces vary considerably among cooperatives of origin, with maximum averages of 50.45%; 30.05%; 3.82 milligrams of glucose equivalent per gram of dry matter; and 0.53 milligrams of glucose equivalent per gram of dry matter, respectively. Therefore, it is a very valuable ingredient for livestock feed and some cosmetic products that may contain it. The remaining Argan oil content in the pomace varied significantly among cooperatives, ranging from 8.74 to 30.05%. Pomace from traditional extraction recorded the highest content (30.05%), showing that the artisanal and modern extraction processes are not standardized. The measurements of acidity, peroxide value, specific extinction coefficient at 232 nm and 270 nm, and conjugated dienes were carried out in accordance with Moroccan Standard 08.5.090 in order to qualitatively classify all investigated Argan oils. Accordingly, the analyzed oils were categorized as "extra virgin Argan oil," "fine virgin Argan oil," "ordinary virgin Argan oil," and "lampante virgin Argan oil." Therefore, several factors can explain these variations in quality grades, both endogenous and exogenous. Overall, the variation observed in the obtained result allows us to deduce the most significant variables impacting the quality of Argan products and by-products.