Arecibo Radar Research Articles

Database of electron density profiles from Arecibo Radar Observatory for the assessment of ionospheric models

[1] We describe the reduction of the Arecibo Observatory incoherent scatter radar electron density profiles from 1966 to 2006 into a standardized database of electron density profiles useful for the assessment of ionospheric models. The database of electron density profiles covers approximately 700 days of observation over nearly 4 solar cycles and all seasons. These data are averaged into climatological conditions with special attention at maintaining a normal profile shape in altitude. The reduced profile database and the climatological average profiles are provided to the Community Coordinated Modeling Center for open access by the community and their efforts to generate ionosphere model metrics and skill scores.

Validation of CHAMP electron temperature measurements by incoherent scatter radar data

[1] The CHAMP performed electron temperature, Te, measurements during its mission period from 2000 to 2010. For the validation of these Te data comparisons with incoherent scatter radar observations at Arecibo and Tromso (EISCAT) have been performed. Data from 94 (143) close encounters of the satellite with the Arecibo (Tromso) radar are available for the validation. Results at Tromso were reasonable, but at Arecibo significant differences, in particular for low temperature, were observed. Investigations showed that CHAMP Te measurements have a bias which switches sign between northbound and southbound orbit arcs. The global distribution of the bias shows systematic latitudinal structures antisymmetric to the magnetic equator. After correction of this effect, CHAMP Te data show a good agreement with the radar observations at both sites. From the mean relative deviation we deduce that CHAMP Te data are low by 3% with a standard deviation of 8%. Validated CHAMP Te data are available for the period 20 February 2002 through 20 February 2010.

The composition of M-type asteroids: Synthesis of spectroscopic and radar observations

We have conducted a radar-driven observational campaign of 22 main-belt asteroids (MBAs) focused on Bus–DeMeo Xc- and Xk-type objects (Tholen X and M class asteroids) using the Arecibo radar and NASA Infrared Telescope Facilities (IRTF). Sixteen of our targets were near-simultaneously observed with radar and those observations are described in a companion paper (Shepard, M.K., and 19 colleagues [2010]. Icarus, in press). We find that most of the highest metal-content asteroids, as suggested by radar, tend to exhibit silicate absorption features at both 0.9 and 1.9 μm, and the lowest metal-content asteroids tend to exhibit either no bands or only the 0.9 μm band. Eleven of the asteroids were observed at several rotational longitudes in the near-infrared and significant variations in continuum slope were found for nine in the spectral regions 1.1–1.45 μm and 1.6–2.3 μm. We utilized visible wavelength data (Bus, S.J., Binzel, R.P. [2002b]. Icarus 158, 146–177; Fornasier, S., Clark, B.E., Dotto, E., Migliorini, A., Ockert-Bell, M., Barucci, M.A. [2010]. Icarus 210, 655–673.) for a more complete compositional analysis of our targets. Compositional evidence is derived from our target asteroid spectra using two different methods: (1) a χ 2 search for spectral matches in the RELAB database, and (2) parametric comparisons with meteorites. This paper synthesizes the results of the RELAB search and the parametric comparisons with compositional suggestions based on radar observations. We find that for six of the seven asteroids with the highest iron abundances, our spectral results are consistent with the radar evidence (16 Psyche, 216 Kleopatra, 347 Pariana, 758 Mancunia, 779 Nina, and 785 Zwetana). Three of the seven asteroids with the lowest metal abundances, our spectral results are consistent with the radar evidence (21 Lutetia, 135 Hertha, 497 Iva). The remaining seven asteroids (22 Kalliope, 97 Klotho, 110 Lydia, 129 Antigone, 224 Oceana, 678 Fredegundis, and 771 Libera) have ambiguous compositional interpretations when comparing the spectral analogs to the radar analogs. The number of objects with ambiguous results from this multi-wavelength survey using visible, near-infrared, and radar wavelengths indicates that perhaps a third diagnostic wavelength region (such as the mid-infrared around 2–4 μm, the mid-infrared around 10–15 μm, and/or the ultraviolet around 0.2–0.4 μm) should be explored to resolve the discrepancies.

Assessment of the Higher Order Ionosphere Error on Position Solutions

This paper presents an assessment of the impact of the higher order ionosphere error on GPS position solutions. Prior studies of higher order ionosphere error are based on simplified ionosphere models, and there is a lack of understanding of their temporal and spatial structures. In this paper, we apply the Appleton-Hartree formula in the computation of the higher order errors by combining vertical electron density profiles obtained from the Arecibo incoherent scatter radar, the International Reference Ionosphere model, total electron content maps derived from the International GNSS Service database, and the International Geomagnetic Reference Field model. The 24-slot GPS baseline constellation is used to compute a receiver position error based on higher order range error. The position error at the Arecibo radar site on a quiet day is used as an example to demonstrate the magnitude, sign, and daily variation patterns of higher order ionosphere induced position error.

Formation of negative disturbances in the topside ionosphere during solar flares

[1] The results of studies of the ionospheric response to solar flares are presented. The results are based on the observations of GPS signals and at incoherent scatter radars and on theoretical calculations. Analyzing the GPS data, the method based on a partial “shadowing” of the atmosphere by the Earth was used. This method made it possible to estimate the value of the electron content variations in the topside ionosphere during the solar flare on 14 July 2000. We obtained that according to the GPS data at altitudes of the topside ionosphere (h > 300 km) a flare is able to cause a decrease of the electron content. Similar eects of formation of a negative disturbance in the ionospheric region were observed also during the solar flares on 21 and 23 May 1967 by the Arecibo radar. Using the theoretical model of ionosphere‐plasmasphere interaction, we study in this paper the mechanism of formation of negative disturbances in the topside ionosphere during solar flares. It is shown that the intense transport of O + ions into the above-situated plasma caused by a sharp increase in the ion production rate and thermal expansion of the ionospheric plasma is a cause of the formation of the negative disturbance in the electron concentration in the topside ionosphere. INDEX TERMS: 2481 Ionosphere: Topside ionosphere; 2435 Ionosphere: Ionospheric disturbances; 2467 Ionosphere: Plasma temperature and density; KEYWORDS: Electron content variations; solar flare; GPS receivers network; Arecibo IS installation.

Modeling the meteor head echo using Arecibo radar observations

This paper reports results obtained using a combined set of models to determine meteoroid properties by comparing expected and observed meteor head-echo signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and line-of-sight Doppler velocity as measured in high-power and large-aperture (HPLA) radar observations. For this task we model: (1) meteor ablation and ionization processes, (2) meteor head-echo radar cross-section (RCS), (3) the radar equation, and (4) the radar antenna gain pattern, together with an automated least-squares fitting procedure to estimate meteoroid and observation parameters (i.e. aspect angle, location within the radar beam, etc.). We compared our simulated results with 236 head-echo events observed using the Arecibo 430 MHz radar in Puerto Rico. We found good agreement between modeled and observed SNR versus meteor altitude profiles for a broad range of head-echo observations. We also find reasonable agreement between meteoroid mass distributions resulting from these models and estimated using dynamical arguments, with the dynamical mass generally resulting in lower values by about 1–2 orders of magnitude. A characteristic of our methodology is that we can trace back the original mass and velocity of the meteoroid “above” the atmosphere (∼150 km altitude) required to produce the observed meteors. We find that, the original mass is required to be, on average, 1–2 orders of magnitude larger than that at the time of observation, and 3 orders of magnitude larger than estimated using dynamical equations. These results suggest that many meteor head echoes are observed towards the end of the particle's life, which has significant implications for the use of these observations for the determination of meteoroid properties. The automated fitting procedure is very sensitive to the antenna pattern, and therefore allows for precise estimates of the location of the meteoroid's trajectory within the Arecibo radar beam. The results indicate a noticeable, but weak, dependence between the distance of the particle's trajectory from the center of the beam (i.e. maximum gain) and the mass and velocity of the meteoroid. This suggests that the Arecibo radar is not particularly biased toward a specific velocity population of meteoroids (i.e. high velocity) as has been suggested in previous work.

A semi‐empirical model of the contribution from sporadic meteoroid sources on the meteor input function in the MLT observed at Arecibo

In this paper, we present a modeling and observational study of the micrometeor input function with a focus on understanding how each of the extraterrestrial sporadic meteoroid sources contributes to the observed meteoric flux in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) atmospheric region. For this purpose, we expand the model presented by Janches et al. (2006) using a Monte Carlo technique and incorporating: 1) a widely accepted global mass flux, which is divided into different proportions among the known sporadic meteoroid sources as the initial input above Earth’s atmosphere; 2) contemporary knowledge on the source's velocity and radiant distributions; and 3) the full integration of the canonical meteor equations that describe the meteoroid entry and ablation physics. In addition, we constrain the initial input through a comparison of our modeled results with meteor observations obtained with the 430 MHz High Power and Large Aperture (HPLA) Arecibo radar in Puerto Rico that covers all seasons. The predicted meteor rates and velocity distributions are in excellent agreement with the observed ones without the need for any additional normalization factor. Our results indicate that although the Earth’s Apex centered radiant source, which is characterized by high geocentric speeds (∼55 km/s), appears to be ∼33% of the meteoroids in the Solar System at 1 AU, it accounts for ∼60% of the meteors observed by the Arecibo HPLA radar in the atmosphere. The remaining 40% of observed meteors originate mostly from the Helion and Anti‐Helion sources, with a very small, but constant during the day, contribution of the South and North Toroidal sources. These results also suggest that particles smaller than ∼10−3μg with slow velocities (<30 km/s) will not significantly ablate and never become observable meteors. The motivation of this effort is to construct a new and more precise MIF model needed for the subsequent modeling of the atmospheric phenomena related to the meteoric flux.

Observations of X/M asteroids across multiple wavelengths

We have conducted a radar-driven observational campaign of main-belt asteroids (MBAs) focused on X/M class asteroids using the Arecibo radar and NASA Infrared Telescope Facilities (IRTF). M-type asteroids have been identified as metallic, enstatite chondrites and/or heavily altered carbonaceous chondrites [Bell, J.F., Davis, D., Hartmann, W.K., Gaffey, M.J., 1989. In: Binzel, R.P., Gehrels, T., Matthews, M.S. (Eds.), Asteroids II. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 921–948; Gaffey, M.J., McCord, T.B., 1979. In: Gehrels, T., Matthews, M.S. (Eds.), Asteroids. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 688–723; Vilas, F., 1994. Icarus 111, 456–467]. Radar wavelength observations can determine whether an asteroid is metallic and provide information about the porosity and regolith depth. Near-infrared observations can help determine the grain size, porosity and composition of an object. Concurrent observations with these tools can give us a wealth of information about an object. Our objectives for this observation program were to (a) determine if there are any consistent relationships between spectra in the near-infrared wavelengths and radar signatures and (b) look for rotationally resolved relationships between asteroid radar properties and near-infrared spectral properties. This paper describes preliminary results of an ongoing survey of near-infrared observations of M-type asteroids and is a companion paper to radar observations reported by Shepard [Shepard, M.K., and 19 colleagues, 2008a. Icarus 195, 184–205]. In the analysis of 16 asteroid near-infrared spectra and nine radar measurements, we find a trend indicating a correlation between continuum slope from 1.7 to 2.45 μm and radar albedo—an asteroid with a steep continuum slope also has a bright radar albedo, which suggests a significant metal content. This may provide a means to use near-IR observations to predict the most likely metallic candidates for radar studies.

Arecibo radar under pressure

Arecibo radar under pressure

Electron precipitation from the inner radiation belt above Arecibo

We examine possible correlations between occurrences of nighttime E‐region plasma line (PL) enhancements over Arecibo and 40.75 kHz NAU emissions. On the night of January 1–2, 2006, the experiments were conducted from 22:00 to 6:00 local time (LT). NAU transmitter was initially turned off until 01:45 LT, when continuous operations resumed for the remainder of the experiments. Enhanced PL events lasting <10 s had central frequencies and bandwidths of about 2.5 and 1.5 MHz, respectively, indicating that Arecibo radar detected 2.3 to 8.5 eV suprathermal electrons streaming along geomagnetic fields. The rate of PL event detections increased by a factor of 2.8 after NAU turn‐on. We suggest that 40.75 kHz radiation sporadically leaked though local ionosphere, probably abetted by field‐aligned irregularities. The radiation propagated in whistler mode into the L = 1.35 inner radiation belt where gyroresonant interactions with trapped 390 keV electrons increased the precipitation rate.

Multiple-site comparisons between models of incoherent scatter radar and IRI

Long-term databases of multiple incoherent scatter radars (ISRs) are used to create local empirical models at seven ISR sites including, from magnetic north to south and east to west, EISCAT Svalbard Radar (Norway), Sondrestrom Radar (Greenland), EISCAT TromsøRadars (Norway), Millstone Hill Radar (USA), St. Santin Radar (France), Shigaraki Middle and Upper atmosphere (MU) Radar (Japan) and Arecibo Radar (Puerto Rico). As local models, they can represent some features that may be smeared out in a global model, and are important complements to and validation tools for global models such as IRI. This paper presents comparisons between these ISR models and IRI for median solar activity and quiet magnetic activity conditions, with focus on daytime height variations for electron density, ion and electron temperatures.

Modeling the global micrometeor input function in the upper atmosphere observed by high power and large aperture radars

We report initial results of an effort to model the diurnal and seasonal variability of the meteor rate detected by high power and large aperture (HPLA) radars. The model uses Monte Carlo simulation techniques and at present assumes that most of the detected particles originate from three radiant distributions with the most dominant concentrated around the Earth's apex. The other two sources are centered 80° in ecliptic longitude to each side of the apex and are commonly known as helion and antihelion. To reproduce the measurements, the apex source flux was set to provide ∼70% of the total number of particles while the other ∼30% is provided by the combined contribution of the two remaining sources. The results of the model are in excellent agreement with observed diurnal curves obtained at different seasons and locations using the 430 MHz Arecibo radar in Puerto Rico, the 50 MHz Jicamarca radar in Perú, and the 1.29 GHz Sondrestrom radar in Greenland. To obtain agreement with the observed diurnal and seasonal variability of the meteor rate, an empirical atmospheric filtering effect was introduced in the simulation which prevents meteors with low‐elevation radiants (≤20°) from being detected by the radars at mesospheric altitudes. The filtering effect is probably produced by a combination of factors related to the interaction of the meteor with the air molecules such as electron production and/or the ablation at higher altitudes. On the basis of these results we calculate the micrometeor global, diurnal, and seasonal input in the upper atmosphere.

A modeling study of ionospheric F2-region storm effects at low geomagnetic latitudes during 17-22 March 1990

Abstract. We have presented a comparison between the modeled NmF2 and hmF2, and NmF2 and hmF2, which were observed in the low-latitude ionosphere simultaneously by the Kokubunji, Yamagawa, Okinawa, Manila, Vanimo, and Darwin ionospheric sounders, by the middle and upper atmosphere (MU) radar during 17-22 March 1990, and by the Arecibo radar for the time period of 20-22 March 1990. A comparison between the electron and ion temperatures measured by the MU and Arecibo radars and those produced by the model of the ionosphere and plasmasphere is presented. The empirical zonal electric field, the meridional neutral wind taken from the HWM90 wind model, and the NRLMSISE-00 neutral temperature and densities are corrected so that the model results agree reasonably with the ionospheric sounder observations, and the MU and Arecibo radar data. It is proved that the nighttime weakening of the equatorial zonal electric field (in comparison with that produced by the empirical model of Fejer and Scherliess (1997) or Scherliess and Fejer (1999)), in combination with the corrected wind-induced plasma drift along magnetic field lines, provides the development of the nighttime enhancements in NmF2 observed over Manila during 17-22 March 1990. As a result, the new physical mechanism of the nighttime NmF2 enhancement formation close to the geomagnetic equator includes the nighttime weakening of the equatorial zonal electric field and equatorward nighttime plasma drift along magnetic field lines caused by neutral wind in the both geomagnetic hemispheres. It is found that the latitudinal positions of the crests depend on the E×B drift velocity and on the neutral wind velocity. The relative role of the main mechanisms of the equatorial anomaly suppression observed during geomagnetic storms is studied for the first time in terms of storm-time variations of the model crest-to-trough ratios of the equatorial anomaly. During most of the studied time period, a total contribution from meridional neutral winds and variations in the zonal electric field to the equatorial anomaly changes is larger than that from geomagnetic storm disturbances in the neutral temperature and densities. Vibrationally excited N2 and O2 promote the equatorial anomaly enhancement during the predominant part of the studied time period, however, the role of vibrationally excited N2 and O2 in the development of the equatorial anomaly is not significant. The asymmetries in the neutral wind and densities relative to the geomagnetic equator are responsible for the north-south asymmetry in NmF2 and hmF2, and for the asymmetry between the values of the crest-to-trough ratios of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The model simulations provide evidence in favor of an asymmetry in longitude of the energy input into the auroral region of the Northern Hemisphere on 21 March 1990.

Observed diurnal and seasonal behavior of the micrometeor flux using the Arecibo and Jicamarca radars

In this paper, we present results from meteor head-echo observations using the 430 MHz dual beam Arecibo radar in Puerto Rico and the 50 MHz Jicamarca radar in Peru. We show that the seasonal behavior reflected in the fast component of the micrometeor velocity distributions measured at Arecibo can be well explained by a micrometeor radiant distribution centered at the Earth's apex as measured by Jicamarca Radio Observatory (JRO). We conclude that these radars, as probably every other high power and large aperture radar, detect this micrometeor population that show good agreement with the so-called South and North Apex sources reported by Jones and Brown [1993. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]. However, these radars do not seem to detect particles from any other source reported by those authors. We also showed that in order to explain the diurnal and seasonal behavior of the meteor rate detected at Arecibo, based on the results determined by the Jicamarca radar, a strong atmospheric filtering effect must exist. This effect is produced by the early and higher ablation of micrometeors, which enter the atmosphere a low elevation angles, probably reaching high temperature at higher altitudes and depositing some or all their material before they penetrate deep into the Mesosphere/Lower Thermosphere region. These results explain at some level the missing mass inconsistency raised by the comparison of meteor fluxes derived from satellite and traditional meteor radar observations. They also may be the source of the observed high altitude ions and metallic layers observed by radars and lidars, respectively.

Radar observations of Comet 2P/Encke during the 2003 apparition

The nucleus of Comet 2P/Encke was detected with the Arecibo radar during the close approach of November, 2003, making this the first comet to yield radar detections at two different apparitions. Although the measured radar cross section of 1.0 km 2 was close to that obtained in 1980, the Doppler bandwidth was nearly four times larger. Most of this bandwidth difference can simply be attributed to a different observing aspect relative to the spin axis proposed by Sekanina [1988, Astron. J. 95, 911] and Festou and Barale [2000, Astron. J. 119, 3119]. Comparison of the 2003 Doppler bandwidth with infrared-based size estimates supports an 11-h dominant rotation period and excludes slower 15- and 22-h periods that have also been suggested. If one assumes a short-axis-mode rotation with an 11-h period, then the Doppler bandwidth indicates that the nucleus is an oblong object with a long-axis dimension of 9 km. The estimated radar albedo of 0.05 is similar to that measured for C/IRAS–Araki–Alcock, providing further evidence that comet nuclei have relatively low surface densities of ∼0.5–1.0 g cm −3. No broadband echo component was detected from large coma grains despite predictions, based on optical/infrared models, that such a component might be detectable.

Common volume coherent and incoherent scatter radar observations of mid-latitude sporadic E-layers and QP echoes

Abstract. Common-volume observations of sporadic E-layers made on 14-15 June 2002 with the Arecibo incoherent scatter radar and a 30MHz coherent scatter radar imager located on St. Croix are described. Operating in dual-beam mode, the Arecibo radar detected a slowly descending sporadic E-layer accompanied by a series of dense E-region plasma clouds at a time when the coherent scatter radar was detecting quasi-periodic (QP) echoes. Using coherent radar imaging, we collocate the sources of the coherent scatter with the plasma clouds observed by Arecibo. In addition to patchy, polarized scattering regions drifting through the radar illuminated volume, which have been observed in previous imaging experiments, the 30MHz radar also detected large-scale electrostatic waves in the E-region over Puerto Rico, with a wavelength of about 30km and a period of about 10min, propagating to the southwest. Both the intensity and the Doppler shifts of the coherent echoes were modulated by the wave.

Meteoroid velocity distribution derived from head echo data collected at Arecibo during regular world day observations

Abstract. We report the observation and analysis of ionization flashes associated with the decay of meteoroids (so-called head echos) detected by the Arecibo 430 MHz radar during regular ionospheric observations in the spring and autumn equinoxes. These two periods allow pointing well-above and nearly-into the ecliptic plane at dawn when the event rate maximizes. The observation of many thousands of events allows a statistical interpretation of the results, which show that there is a strong tendency for the observed meteoroids to come from the apex as has been previously reported (Chau and Woodman, 2004). The velocity distributions agree with Janches et al. (2003a) when they are directly comparable, but the azimuth scan used in these observations allows a new perspective. We have constructed a simple statistical model which takes meteor velocities as input and gives radar line of sight velocities as output. The intent is to explain the fastest part of the velocity distribution. Since the speeds interpreted from the measurements are distributed fairly narrowly about nearly 60 km s-1, double the speed of the earth in its orbit, is consistent with the interpretation that many of the meteoroids seen by the Arecibo radar are moving in orbits about the sun with similar parameters as the earth, but in the retrograde direction. However, it is the directional information obtained from the beam-swinging radar experiment and the speed that together provide the evidence for this interpretation. Some aspects of the measured velocity distributions suggest that this is not a complete description even for the fast part of the distribution, and it certainly says nothing about the slow part first described in Janches et al. (2003a). Furthermore, we cannot conclude anything about the entire dust population since there are probably selection effects that restrict the observations to a subset of the population.

Radar imaging of the lunar poles.

Long-wavelength measurements reveal a paucity of ice in the Moon's polar craters. We have used a radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory, Puerto Rico, to map features of the lunar poles — some as small as 300 metres across — by collecting long-wavelength radar images that can penetrate several metres of lunar dust. We find that areas of the crater floors at the poles that are in permanent shadow from the Sun, which are potential cold traps for water or other volatiles, do not give rise to strong radar echoes like those associated with thick ice deposits in the polar craters on Mercury. Any lunar ice present within regions visible to the Arecibo radar must therefore be in the form of distributed grains or thin layers.

On the geocentric micrometeor velocity distribution

We report micrometeor velocity distributions measured with unprecedented velocity and radiant resolution using the dual‐beam 430 MHz Arecibo (AO) radar in Puerto Rico. The AO radar detects over 10,000 events daily inside its 300 m radar beam that are produced mainly by particles in the size range 0.5–100 microns. During the observations reported here, the line feed antenna is pointed vertically while the Gregorian feed is pointed at an angle of 15 degrees from zenith. The off‐vertical radar beam is initially placed pointing north and every 30 min is rotated 180 degrees, allowing observation of three different regions of the Earth's ionosphere. Results from the observations performed on 21 January and 25 June 2002 are presented and discussed. We observe that the meteoroid population detected by AO is smaller in particle size and faster in velocity and thus entirely different from the one observed by conventional lower‐frequency meteor radars that use a different scattering mechanism. We observe qualitative difference in the shape of the meteor velocity distribution for the different pointing directions. Preliminary analysis of these distributions indicates that we detect at least four particle populations characterized by their geocentric velocities: A slow one with a “classical” value (∼15 km/sec), an intermediate velocity population (∼30 km/sec) the presence of which depends on ecliptic latitude and longitude, and two fast and dominant (at sunrise) populations (∼45 km/sec and ∼50 km/sec). Finally, we explore the possibility of observational biases in our technique and find no evidence for large effects.

First observations of an F-region turbulent upwelling coincident with severe E-region plasma and neutral atmosphere perturbations

Highly structured electron densities in the E and F regions over Puerto Rico during the night of February 20/21, 1999 were accompanied by intense coherent VHF radar backscatter from the E region and perturbations in neutral sodium in the mesosphere. Simultaneous observations of the event were made with the VHF Cornell University Portable Radar Interferometer (CUPRI) located near Isabela, PR, the University of Illinois VHF radar located at Salinas, PR, the Arecibo incoherent scatter radar, and the sodium lidar located at the Arecibo Observatory. On this geomagnetically quiet night, regions of very different electron concentrations moved through the region. The F-region peak altitudes of the low density regions differed by about 100 km from the high-density region altitudes. The E region also exhibited an unusual enhancement with a vertical extent of about 6 km and caused intense VHF backscatter. The echoing E regions seen by both VHF radars were highly structured with multiple filaments and Doppler shifts exceeding 300 m/s (directed north and upward) some of the time. The Arecibo incoherent scatter radar recorded a large eastward component of the velocity (∼200 m/s) during the early portion of the event, which then switched to strongly westward (peaking over 500 m/s and averaging perhaps 400 m/s for about half an hour) before returning eastward. The meridional velocity components were also variable. The Arecibo lidar showed an intense sodium layer that maintained a constant altitude until the strongest VHF echoes began. Then the layer fell 2 km over a time span of about half an hour and the lidar echoes intensified. Because (1) the timing of the events at the different locations is well correlated with the F-region drifts as measured with the Arecibo radar, and (2) because the Pedersen conductivity falls precipitiously at the start of the event, we conclude there was strong coupling between the E and F regions, perhaps even reaching the mesosphere, during this event. However, major problems may remain. How can the E-region cloud track the F-region blob when supposedly it is coupled to the neutrals? Does the neutral wind track the F-region ion velocity? We do not think so, but this is the easiest solution.