Areca Palm Research Articles

Biomass models for estimating carbon storage in Areca palm plantations

Globally, ~0.8 million (M) ha of land is under Areca palm ( Areca catechu ) plantations with annual nut production of 1.0 ​M mega grams (Mg). Areca (also called betel nut) has been principally managed in plantations for commercial nut production and a primary source of income for ~16 million people in India. A substantial portion of betel nut plantations has been developed by converting natural forests. Although Areca has vast geographical distribution with economic importance, little has been studied on its role in biomass carbon management. Therefore, the present study aims (i) to develop biomass estimation models for Areca , and (ii) to estimate biomass storage and changes in carbon stock along a chronosequence of Areca plantations. The mean aboveground and total biomass across all height classes ranged from 4 to 56 and 5–75 ​kg plant −1 , respectively. Among the biomass models compared, the model that contained both plant height (H) and diameter at breast height (D) as predictor variables was the top ranked for predicting total plant biomass. The estimated total biomass carbon stocks were 7.8, 18.4, 20.5 and 20.5 ​Mg ​ha −1 in 10, 15, 25, and 35 ​yr old plantations, respectively. The biomass carbon accumulation rate ranged between 0.59 ​Mg ​ha −1 yr −1 in 35 ​yr old plantations and 1.22 ​Mg ​ha −1 yr −1 in 15 ​yr old plantations. Due to their low biomass carbon storage and other associated ecosystem disservices, monoculture palm plantations play a minimal role in sustainable land management and climate change mitigation in our study area. We recommend Areca polycultures and the integration of agroforestry practices in existing monoculture Areca plantations to maintain environmental sustainability. • Natural forests have been cleared to establish Areca palm plantations. • The mean total biomass stock across all height classes ranged from 5 to 75 ​kg plant −1 . • The 10-year Areca plantations had 35 ​Mg ​ha −1 less SOC stock than that under the forests. • Areca plantations have a minimal role in sustainable land use management.

Population structure, pathogenicity, and fungicide sensitivity of Colletotrichum siamense from different hosts in Hainan, China

AbstractAreca palm, rubber tree, and coffee are always planted adjacent to each other or intercropped with each other, and Colletotrichum siamense was found to be the dominant species of Colletotrichum from these crops in Hainan, China. To study the population structure, pathogenicity, and fungicide sensitivity of C. siamense from these three crops in Hainan, isolates were first identified by their morphological characteristics and multilocus phylogeny. Then both permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) and pairwise FST analysis showed that the original host and geographical origin (counties) had significant effects on genetic variation in the C. siamense population, explaining 5.6% and 16.3% of genetic variation, respectively. There were significant genetic differentiations between coffee and rubber tree populations but the genetic differentiation was small (FST = 0.04), while significant differentiations were observed among all populations from different counties except those between Haikou and Chengmai. Pathogenicity analysis using artificial inoculation showed that isolates had significantly higher disease incidence and diseased lesion diameter on wounded leaves than on nonwounded leaves. However, the original host of an isolate and geographical origin did not significantly affect the pathogenicity of the C. siamense populations from these three hosts. In vitro tests showed that there were no significant differences in the sensitivity of C. siamense populations to carbendazim, prochloraz, difenoconazole, and propiconazole from different original hosts and geographical origins. The present study suggests that host specialization of C. siamense has not occurred yet in coffee, rubber tree, and areca palm.

Species diversity of Ganoderma causing foot rot of arecanut in southern dry tracts of Karnataka

Aim: The present study was undertaken to study the morphological and molecular diversity of Ganoderma spp. causing foot rot of arecanut in dry tracts of Southern Karnataka. Methodology: A total of 20 samples isolated from diseased areca palms in three districts of Karnataka were identified based on morphological and molecular characteristics. Qualitative data of cultural characteristics were transformed into code and a binary matrix was generated. Total genomic DNA was isolated and ITS region was amplified using universal primers ITS1 and ITS4. PCR amplicon was directly sequenced and phylogenetic analysis was carried out. Results: The dendrogram generated from the cultural morphological characteristics showed clear variations among Ganoderma isolates causing foot rot. DNA amplification of Ganoderma isolates with fungal universal primers (ITS1 and ITS4) was observed at 650 bp in all isolates tested. Taxonomic correlation of isolates upon NCBI web proved that the isolates were genetically related to Ganoderma spp. with 89-99.49 per cent identity and confirmed the taxonomic identity of isolates used in this study. Interpretation: Phylogenetic analysis of arecanut isolates of southern Karnataka are distinct as evidenced by forming separate cluster. Based on gene homology, G. ryvardenni and G. casuarinicola are new species reported as causal agent of foot rot in arecanut from Karnataka. The ITS gene sequences of four isolates viz., AG3 (MN 784436), AG4 (MN 784437), AG11 (MN 784438), and AG20 (MN 78449) were deposited in NCBI gene bank. Key words: Arecanut, Foot rot, Ganoderma, Phylogeny, Species diversity

Macro-, micro-, and trace element distributions in areca nut, husk, and soil of northeast India.

In areca nut and husk, 14 elements (As, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Rb, Sb, and Zn) were determined, while 34 elements including rare earth elements were detected in the corresponding soil samples using instrumental neutron activation analysis and atomic absorption spectrometry methods, whereas the concentration levels of Hg in tested samples are negligible, perhaps, below the detection limits. No rare earth elements were detected in edible areca nut. The concentration levels of various essential elements and heavy elements such as As, Cd, and Cu present in areca nut are within the permissible levels, whereas Pb content is relatively higher than FAO/WHO's permissible levels. The order of bioaccumulation index for heavy metals in areca nut was Cd > Sb > Cu > Zn ≥ Mn ≥ Co > Pb ≥ As. Bioaccumulation index values are indicating that areca palm may not be able to accumulate other heavy elements in the edible areca nut, except for Cd. On the basis of pollution indices, Northeast Indian soil may be relatively unpolluted.

Effect of topical Areca palm L. hydroalcoholic extract on burn wound healing in rats.

Objectives:Wound healing is a complex and dynamic process that begins immediately following tissue injury and continues until the wound is completely healed and remodeled. Applying the most effective burn repair techniques is a constant challenge in medicine. Antiulcerogenic and wound healing properties of Areca palm leaves have been validated through various investigations and animal studies. This study aimed to determine the potential for A. palm hydroalcoholic extract to heal burn wounds in rats.Materials and Methods:For 14 days, we examined 40 male Wistar albino rats in 5 groups: those receiving 1% silver sulfadiazine cream (reference standard), those receiving eucerin (positive control), and those receiving 5% and 10% ointments of Areca catechu hydroalcoholic extract (treatment groups). No treatment was given to the negative control group. On the dorsal part of the animals’ necks, burn wounds were made. After the rats were sacrificed, the wound contraction rate (WCR) was determined, and the wound sites were histopathologically examined.Results:On the 14th day, the WCR was significantly higher in rats treated with A. palm 10% extract ointment than in rats treated with 5% extract, positive or negative control groups (p < 0.001), or rats treated with silver sulphfadiazine (p = 0.01). After applying a 10% extract ointment to burn wound sites, complete healing occurred with only mild tissue inflammation and edema.Conclusion:The study’s findings indicate that the hydroalcoholic extract of A. palm L. has the ability to expedite the wound healing process. Additional research is necessary to identify the compounds responsible for their wound healing properties and comprehend their action mechanism.

Energy potential from Areca Palm through Direct Combustion and Pyrolysis in Indonesia: A review

Global warming that occurs due to rapid population growth and increasing of energy consumption makes energy supply decreases. Energy source from non-renewable energy (fossil fuel) cause increasing greenhouse gas emission level and scarcity of natural resources. This paper reports that agricultural residues especially areca palm wastes had been widely used as an alternative energy source to reducing fossil fuel consumption. About 4.780.000 tones areca palm produced per year around the world and the shell was burned in open air or just thrown in the environment. This work aimed to investigate energy potential from areca palm shell using direct combustion and pyrolysis method also do analysis about this technology from environmental point of view and that contribution for sustainable uses.

Evaluation of economics of a few green wastes used for income generation inAssam

There are varied kinds of plant-origin resources, many of which are considered wastes as these materials normally do not find proper economic utilization. Awareness on the utilization of the plant wastes in the household sector is the need of the hour for motivation and impact development among the target group. It can have a great impact on improvement of rural economy in a poor state like Assam. For example - with simple suitable technological intervention the areca palm leaf sheath can be utilized for making biosphere friendly disposable plates and bowls which are biodegradable and have a competitive market edge over paper and other non biodegradable plates made of synthetic materials. Many water bodies like canals, ponds, rivers etc. are choked by the explosive growth of aquatic weed called water hyacinth resulting in enormous direct loss. The prospect of making it an economically blessed weed by properly utilising it as business commodity is getting higher. The opportunity should be trapped by the local or indigenous people by developing adequate entrepreneurship with almost zero raw material cost. A study was under taken with the objectives: To assess the economics of areca palm sheath disposable serving plate making and Assessment of economics of use of water hyacinth for handicraft products. It was revealed that by using 231 numbers of palm leaf sheath per day and an 8 hours of working using two manually operated pressing machines and spending rupees 354 as daily additional cost, a person can earn a profit of rupees one lakh nineteen thousand nine hundred six annually, resulting in a benefit cost ratio of 2.23. On the other hand by making certain utility products using one kg of dried water hyacinth stems @ Rs. 40/- one can earn an average of two thousand nine hundred fifty rupees weekly. The benefit cost ratio was found to be 1.65 which may increase further depending on products of finer quality. Availability of areca plantation and water hyacinth in this part of the country can thus be gainfully utilized as raw material for manufacturing eco- friendly useful biodegradable items with a high potential market face value and thus would help to enhance rural economy.

A Newly Identified Virus in the Family Potyviridae Encodes Two Leader Cysteine Proteases in Tandem That Evolved Contrasting RNA Silencing Suppression Functions.

Potyviridae is the largest family of plant-infecting RNA viruses and includes many agriculturally and economically important viral pathogens. The viruses in the family, known as potyvirids, possess single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genomes with polyprotein processing as a gene expression strategy. The N-terminal regions of potyvirid polyproteins vary greatly in sequence. Previously, we identified a novel virus species within the family, Areca palm necrotic spindle-spot virus (ANSSV), which was predicted to encode two cysteine proteases, HCPro1 and HCPro2, in tandem at the N-terminal region. Here, we present evidence showing self-cleavage activity of these two proteins and define their cis-cleavage sites. We demonstrate that HCPro2 is a viral suppressor of RNA silencing (VSR), and both the variable N-terminal and conserved C-terminal (protease domain) moieties have antisilencing activity. Intriguingly, the N-terminal region of HCPro1 also has RNA silencing suppression activity, which is, however, suppressed by its C-terminal protease domain, leading to the functional divergence of HCPro1 and HCPro2 in RNA silencing suppression. Moreover, the deletion of HCPro1 or HCPro2 in a newly created infectious clone abolishes viral infection, and the deletion mutants cannot be rescued by addition of corresponding counterparts of a potyvirus. Altogether, these data suggest that the two closely related leader proteases of ANSSV have evolved differential and essential functions to concertedly maintain viral viability.IMPORTANCE The Potyviridae represent the largest group of known plant RNA viruses and account for more than half of the viral crop damage worldwide. The leader proteases of viruses within the family vary greatly in size and arrangement and play key roles during the infection. Here, we experimentally demonstrate the presence of a distinct pattern of leader proteases, HCPro1 and HCPro2 in tandem, in a newly identified member within the family. Moreover, HCPro1 and HCPro2, which are closely related and typically characterized with a short size, have evolved contrasting RNA silencing suppression activity and seem to function in a coordinated manner to maintain viral infectivity. Altogether, the new knowledge fills a missing piece in the evolutionary relationship history of potyvirids and improves our understanding of the diversification of potyvirid genomes.

Mitigation of indoor air pollutants using Areca palm potted plants in real-life settings.

Deterioration of indoor air quality (IAQ) has become a serious concern as people spend lots of time indoors and prolonged pollution exposure can result in adverse health outcomes. Indoor plants can phytoremediate a wide variety of indoor contaminants. Nonetheless, few experiments have demonstrated their efficacy in real-time environments. Therefore, the present study aims to experimentally assess the efficiency of Areca palm potted plants in phytoremediation of primary indoor air pollutant viz. total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs), carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon monoxide (CO) levels from real-world indoor spaces, for the first time. Four discrete naturally ventilated experimental sites (I-IV) situated at the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research- Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (CSIR-IHBT) were used. For over a period of 4months, the sites were monitored using zero plants as a control (1-4week), three plants (5-8week), six plants (9-12week), and nine plants (13-16week), respectively. Present results indicate that Areca palm potted plants can effectively reduce the TVOCs, CO2, and CO levels by 88.16% in site IV, 52.33% and 95.70% in site III, respectively. The current study concluded that Areca palm potted plants offer an efficient, cost-effective, self-regulating, sustainable solution for improving indoor air quality and thereby human well-being and productivity in closed and confined spaces.

First report of 16SrI-B subgroup related phytoplasma associated with witches'-broom symptoms in Pericampylus glaucus in China.

Pericampylus glaucus is an important medicinal plant resource containing active components with potential antitumor activity in China (Zhao & Cui, 2009). During July through August 2020, plants displayed disease symptoms including "witches' broom", leaf chlorosis, leaflet and internode shortening that impacted their growth (Fig. 1). These plants were first found in Dingan county of Hainan province, China. Total DNA from 12 plants were extracted using 0.10 g fresh plant leaves based on CTAB method. After amplification using primers specific for phytoplasma 16S rRNA, tuf and secA gene targets, R16mF2R16mR1 (Lee et al, 1993), fTuf1/rTuf1 (Schneider et al., 1997) and secAfor1/secArev3 (Hodgetts et al., 2008), the target bands of the three gene fragments of phytoplasma were detected in the disease sample DNA from six disease plants, and not in the healthy sample DNA from six healthy plants. Nucleotide sequences of the three genes were obtained from the PCR products sequencing and analyzed by DNAMAN 5.0 software. The three gene fragments of the DNA extracted from the disease samples were identical, with length of 1334 bp 16S rRNA (GenBank accession: MT872515), 989 bp tuf (MT755960) and 750 bp secA (MT755961) gene fragments, putatively encoding 329 (tuf) and 249 (secA) amino acids sequence separately. The phytoplasma strain was named as Pericampylus glaucus witches'-broom (PgWB) phytoplasma, PgWB-hnda strain, belonging to 16SrI-B subgroup by iPhyClassifier analysis. Homology and phylogenetic analysis indicated that based on 16S rRNA gene fragments, PgWB-hnda, pepper yellow crinkle phytoplasma PYC-hnhk (MT760793), chinaberry witches'-broom phytoplasma CWB-hnsy1 (KP662119) and CWB-hn (EF990733), periwinkle virescence phytoplasma PeV-hnhk (KP662136), with 100.0 % identity value, arecanut yellow leaf phytoplasma AYL-hnwn (FJ998269) and AYL-hn (FJ694685), with 99.8 % identity value, were clustered into one clade. Based on the analysis of tuf gene sequence fragments, PgWB was closely related to PYC-hnhk (MT755960), CWB-hnsy1 (KP662155), PeV-hnhk (KP662172) with 99.9 % identity value. Based on the analysis of secA gene sequence fragments, PgWB was closely related to CWB-hnsy1 (KP662173) with 99.7 % identity value, PYC-hnhk (MT755961), PeV-hnhk (KP662190) with 99.4 % identity value. To our knowledge, this is the first time that Pericampylus glaucus witches'-broom disease caused by 16SrI-B subgroup phytoplasma strain was found in China. Multilocus sequence analysis showed that PgWB was closely related to the phytoplasma strains causing pepper yellow crinkle, chinaberry witches'-broom, periwinkle virescence and areca palm yellow leaf diseases, all occurred in Hainan Island of China.

Rapid and Efficient Detection of 16SrI Group Areca Palm Yellow Leaf Phytoplasma in China by Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification.

Areca palm yellow leaf (AYL) disease caused by the 16SrI group phytoplasma is a serious threat to the development of the Areca palm industry in China. The 16S rRNA gene sequence was utilized to establish a rapid and efficient detection system efficient for the 16SrI-B subgroup AYL phytoplasma in China by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). The results showed that two sets of LAMP detection primers, 16SrDNA-2 and 16SrDNA-3, were efficient for 16SrIB subgroup AYL phytoplasma in China, with positive results appearing under reaction conditions of 64oC for 40 min. The lowest detection limit for the two LAMP detection assays was the same at 200 ag/μl, namely approximately 53 copies/μl of the target fragments. Phytoplasma was detected in all AYL disease samples from Baoting, Tunchang, and Wanning counties in Hainan province using the two sets of LAMP primers 16SrDNA-2 and 16SrDNA-3, whereas no phytoplasma was detected in the negative control. The LAMP method established in this study with comparatively high sensitivity and stability, provides reliable results that could be visually detected, making it suitable for application and research in rapid diagnosis of AYL disease, detection of seedlings with the pathogen and breeding of disease-resistant Areca palm varieties.

Expert System for Areca Plant Disease Detection Using Forward Chaining Method

Areca palm has been widely planted by the people of the Asahan Regency. This plant is cultivated not only by the farmers, but also by many people living in this regency. Therefore, an expert system is needed to help villagers in detecting areca palm desease. In areca palm cultivation, pests and diseases attack always happen. The purpose of this research is to apply an expert system as a tool to diagnose and also provide advice for control. This expert system, in the form of a consultation scenario, can be done by answering every question (yes or no); all answers are compared to the areca palm plants needs based-on expert experience. The inference method used is forward chaining. The output of this system is the types of diseases, percentages, symptoms, definitions, treatment, and prevention.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: Areca Palm, Expert System, Forward Chaining.

Study on morphology and mechanical behavior of areca leaf sheath reinforced epoxy composites

Nowadays, current inventions are concentrated on the use of natural fibers which are biodegradable, eco-friendly, and easily available constituents such as fibers of hemp, sisal, coconut viz. viz. along with polymers to achieve greater strength with reduced weight of composites. Green composite materials are becoming interested in their applications in the fields of manufacturing, aerospace, sport, households, and so on. In the present work, the processing of areca leaf sheath (ALS) with epoxy resin as a novel matrix for enhanced green polymer composites has been reported. The effect of areca palm age, surface modification, and the number of layers on mechanical properties like tensile strength and flexural strengths has been determined. Present work reveals that mechanical properties of multiple layered ALS composites had exhibited higher tensile strength (20.51 MPa for 10% NaOH treated, 5 layered, and 6-year aged ALS composites) and flexural strength (115.27 MPa for 10% NaOH treated, 4 layered, and 6-year aged ALS composite) as compared to all other categories. From XRD, FTIR, and SEM analysis, it is evident that surface modification will enhance the micro-fibrillation of the natural fibers and this will increase the mechanical properties of the natural fiber reinforced composites. Graphical abstract

Prevalence of Yellow Leaf Disease (YLD) and its Associated Areca Palm Velarivirus 1 (APV1) in Betel Palm (Areca catechu) Plantations in Hainan, China.

Yellow leaf disease (YLD) is an economically important disease affecting betel palm in several countries, the cause of which remains unclear despite associations with putative agents, including phytoplasmas. In this study, we screened the potential casual agents associated with YLD in Hainan, China using next-generation sequencing and revealed the association of areca palm velarivirus 1 (APV1) with the YLD-affected palm. The complete genome of the APV1-WNY isolate was determined to be 17,546 nucleotides in length, approximately 1.5 kb longer than the previously reported APV1_HN genome. Transmission electron microscopy showed that APV1 particles are flexuous and filamentous, a typical morphology of species in the Closteroviridae family. Comparison of symptomatic and symptomless tree populations showed a strong association between APV1 and YLD. APV1 was detected in Pseudococcus sp. mealybugs sampled from YLD-affected trees in many locations, suggesting that mealybugs are a potential transmission vector for APV1. Although further studies are needed to confirm a causal relationship, these results provide timely information for the prevention and management of YLD associated with APV1.

Physical Properties of the Stem of Dypsis Lutescens and Chrysalidocarpus Lutescens as a Vernacular Roofing Material

The current trend in sustainable architecture is the use of natural and regional materials to reduce those that consume more energy in their production and those that are highly polluting due to the amounts of CO₂, damaging the environment. Concrete is one of the most materials used in construction. Still, it is possible to replace cement with other sustainable or vernacular materials. The objective of the present work is the mechanical characterization of the stem of the areca palm (Dypsis lutescens and Chrysalidocarpus lutescens); its obtention is very common in the area of Tampico-Madero-Altamira (Mexico); the easy planting and reproduction make possible to grow it elsewhere. Tests for compressive, flexural, and mechanical resistance, as well as durability, were carried out using Mexican standards. The maximum bending moment that a 2.5m long horizontal structure can support is estimated. The palm shows an acceptable resistance and a resistant moment of up to 6680 ± 0007kg.cm. We also found that durability may be possible for more than ten years. When a roof structure based on a shingle is made with this plant, including supports every 2.2m, it is possible to use it in vernacular house construction with minimal deformation. The use of this material can reduce the environmental impact by avoiding products derived from cement.

Purification of Indoor Air from Pollutants by Areca Palm (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens L.) Treated with some Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants

Indoor plants play an important role in purification the indoor air pollutants. Therefore, the main objective of this investigation was to increase the resistance of areca palm plants to the excessive concentrations of air gaseous pollutants. The present study was carried out in plastic chambers (80cm length×80cm width×100cm height) for exposing plants to formaldehyde or ammonia gasses after spraying with non-enzymatic antioxidants (glutathione and bilirubin at 300mg L-1 and 600mg L-1). Plants exposed to ammonia were highest in the number of dead leaves and leave injury percentage comparing with the plants exposed to formaldehyde. Plants treated with glutathione at 600 mg L-1 or bilirubin at 300mg L-1 before exposure to formaldehyde gas were not injured leaves, as well as, increased in dry weight and chlorophyll concentration compared with the plants exposed to formaldehyde gas without spraying with antioxidants. Spraying plants with bilirubin at 300mg L-1 before exposure to formaldehyde were increased in total carotenoids as well as increased guaiacol peroxidase (GOPX) and catalase (CAT) activities under formaldehyde whereas it increased the activeties of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) under ammonia. Also, plants treated with bilirubin or glutathione increased in stomata density and pore length under formaldehyde gas. In conclusion, spraying areca plants with bilirubin at 300 mg L-1 enhanced the plant resistance to the formaldehyde and ammonia air pollutants followed by glutathione treatments. Areca palm plants were higher sensitivity to ammonia gas than with formaldehyde gas.

Porous carbon materials derived from areca palm leaves for high performance symmetrical solid-state supercapacitors

Areca palm leaves derived porous carbon material as the electrode for symmetrical solid-state supercapacitors (SSCs). The areca palm leaves biomass was processed using a fast carbonization method followed by in situ chemical activation. The structures and compositions of these biomass-derived carbon materials were characterized using X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, respectively. One of the biomass-derived porous carbon materials, AR2, was a lightweight carbon material that possessed a large surface area of 876 m2 g–1. Electrochemical studies revealed that AR2 possessed a high specific capacitance of 262 F g–1 at a scan rate of 5 mV s–1. We fabricated symmetrical SSCs featuring these carbon material as major (80 wt%) components of the electrodes and poly(vinyl alcohol)–Li2SO4 as gel polymer electrolyte. The optimal supercapacitor (SAR2) involving AR2 exhibited a specific capacitance of 132 F g–1 at a current density of 0.5 A g–1 and an energy density of 10.3 W h kg–1 at a power density of 375 W kg–1, and durability of retaining 92% of its initial capacitance after 5000 cycles—performance that is the excellent values reported for devices featuring derived from biomass.

Eight Colletotrichum Species, Including a Novel Species, Are Associated With Areca Palm Anthracnose in Hainan, China.

Genus Colletotrichum is one of the most important genera of plant-pathogenic fungi affecting numerous species, particularly tropical and subtropical crops and fruit trees. In this study, 43 Colletotrichum strains were isolated from areca palm leaves with anthracnose symptoms in 11 areca palm plantations in eight counties of Hainan, China. Based on the morphology, phylogenetic analysis of six loci (internal transcribed spacer, actin, chitin synthase 1, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, β-tubulin, and mating type locus MAT1-2), and pathogenicity tests, eight Colletotrichum species were distinguished, comprising five previously known species (C. cordylinicola, C. fructicola, C. gloeosporioides, C. siamense, and C. tropicale), one unidentified Colletotrichum species, a new species (C. arecicola) in the gloeosporioides species complex, and C. karstii in the boninense species complex. C. siamense was the most common species found in areca palm in Hainan, followed by C. arecicola. Pathogenicity tests showed that all eight species could cause anthracnose symptoms on areca palm leaves using a wound inoculation method and that the isolates from the gloeosporioides species complex caused larger lesions than the isolates from the boninense species complex. Further research is needed to understand the epidemiology of these pathogenic species on areca palm in order to develop management strategies.

PENGEMBANGAN PINANG SEBAGAI TANAMAN ALTERNATIF DAN PENDUKUNG PENDAPATAN PETANI KELAPA SAWIT DI KABUPATEN ACEH BARAT

Palm oil plants as a superior crop in West Aceh District have recently experienced a shock with the decline in FFB prices due to international, national and local issues regarding palm oil trading. Preventive efforts to overcome this need to be done early by choosing alternative plants and supporting farmers' income, namely areca nut plants. The results showed that the development of areca palm as an alternative plant and oil palm supporting plants in West Aceh District should be focused on the fields of cultivation, industry, marketing and institutional farmers that are carried out in an integrated manner, not partially.

Evaluation of Areca palm renewable options to replace disposable plastic containers using life cycle assessment methodology

In spite of raising awareness of the environmental impacts associated to the production and utilization of plastics, in many situations, the use of plastics is advantageous, and options are still unavailable or under development, representing an opportunity to develop more sustainable options, such as less energy intensive solutions. In this work, the LCA methodology is used to evaluate the environmental impacts of boxes, bowls and plates produced using Areca palm (Areca catechu) sheath, a waste material common in southern India. The inventory is a combination of primary data from a company in India, complemented with secondary data from the Ecoinvent v2.1 (Simapro V7.3). Results show that the main contributors to the potential environmental impact categories and the most energy intensive life cycle steps, are transportation, shipping and electricity generation. Carbon footprints of 1180, 1033 and 1090 kg CO2eq/ton were obtained for Areca boxes, plates and bowls, respectively. Plates made from Areca palm sheath have lower environmental impacts than plastic plates, except in the ozone layer depletion and terrestrial toxicity impact categories.