Settlement Areas Research Articles

Effects of land management technology adoptions on land use land cover dynamics using GIS and remote sensing: the case of Goyrie watershed, southern Ethiopia.

Understanding land use/land cover (LULC) changes is crucial for informing policymakers and planners on the dynamics affecting environmental and resource management. Most past studies highlighted the significance of LULC changes and their driving forces in various locations. However, comprehensive analyses that combine the impact of land management technologies (LMTs) on LULC changes using GIS and remote sensing tools have not been widely addressed. Thus, the study analyzes the effects of LMT adoptions on LULC dynamics and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in the Goyrie watershed from 1993 to 2022. It also examines household perceptions of the cause of LULC changes. Methodologically, Landsat 5 TM (1993), Landsat 5 ETM + (2008), and Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS (2022) images were employed to analyze LULC changes and NDVI. Binary logistic regression models were used to identify households' perceptions of the causes of LULC changes. The findings revealed that the Goyrie watershed has experienced significant LULC changes since 1993. During the entire study period, the shares of grassland, shrub land, cultivated land, and settlement areas increased by 89.4%, 8.5%, 53.6%, and 1613.4% from their original sizes, respectively. Conversely, the coverage of bare land and forest land declined by 99.5% and 99.7%, with annual rates of decline of 3.29% and 3.3%, respectively. Throughout the study period, the increasing trends in grassland and shrub land, along with the decline in bare land, were attributed to LMT practices. The NDVI values of moderate and dense vegetation density decreased by 81.8% and 92.2%, respectively, from 1993 to 2022 due to the expansion of settlement areas and cultivated lands. Population pressure, expansion of settlements and agriculture, fuel extraction, LMTs, and policy issues significantly influenced the LULC changes. The study concludes that more sustainable and integrated LMT practices should be essential to managing the related risks of LULC changes.

Traditional Dual Tank Water Management: A Study of Kolakanatham in Perambalur District, Tamil Nadu

Societies make rainwater harvesting structures to collect and store rain water to cater for their immediate and future needs. In a remote village in the Perambalur district, the people use the dual temple tank, nearly 350 years old, for their drinking purposes. This study tries to understand the traditional knowledge embedded in the dual pond structures, cascade aerators, and an open well connected with the ground aquifer inside the tank. This study delves into projected rainfall trends using NASA POWER data for 2050, revealing a noticeable increase and an assessment of pond water quality parameters demonstrating adherence to acceptable limits set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). However, despite meeting these standards, the water quality index deems the water unsuitable for direct human consumption, though it remains suitable for domestic household use. Moreover, analysis of land cover and land use changes by Sentinel2A data over the past 22 years underscores significant growth in settlement areas, indicative of a rising demand for water resources. The study proposes the restoration and utilization of the dual tank system as a potential solution to address this burgeoning water demand, offering a reliable water source and preserving traditional practices within the local community.

Land use land cover changes from 2003 to 2023 using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques in Niamotpur Upazila with a predictive study for the next decade

This study aims to examine the temporal dynamics of Niamotpur Upazila, Naogaon District, focusing on Land Use Land cover (LULC) changes over thirty years (2003,2013, and 2023) and providing predictive insights for the next decade (2024÷2033). Utilizing Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques, remote sensing data, and meteorological datasets, we categorize the landscape into five primary land cover types: water bodies, vegetation cover, bare soil, drought-prone areas, and settlement areas. This study investigates the relationship between climatic factors and LULC changes, particularly examining the impacts of precipitation and temperature fluctuations on drought-prone areas. From 2003 to 2023 bare soil consistently decreased, while deep vegetation significantly increased, indicating improved land health. Urban areas and light vegetation peaked in 2013 but declined by 2023. Water bodies decreased until 2013, then increased by 2023. Drought-prone areas saw a drastic decrease in extreme drought and a substantial increase in no-risk areas. Climatic data showed minor fluctuations in average temperatures and precipitation: the average maximum temperature slightly decreased, while minimum temperatures and precipitation had small variations. Predictions for the next decade forecast a gradual rise in the average maximum temperature from 29.758 °C in 2024 to 29.830 °C in 2033. The findings underscore the positive trend of increasing deep vegetation and reducing bare soil, enhancing the region’s ecological health. To address these trends the study offers practical recommendations for policymakers, stakeholders, and local communities. Ultimately, this study gives substantial insights into the relations between the dynamic alterations of LULC and climatic factors and presents a way of achieving a better future environment for Niamotpur Upazila.

«Приверженцы иудейства». Секта субботников Саратовской губернии в XIX – начале XX века: проблемы идентификации и восприятия

The article attempts to analyze the problem of identifying subbotniks through the prism of regional refraction, using the example of Saratov province as one of the sectarian centres of residence in the period under consideration. Subbotniks strove for the reception of Old Testament texts, religious traditions and ritual practices, under the influence of which the sectarians’ identity had been developing. The author also examined the origins of subbotniks in the region, their numbers, settlement areas and the building of contacts with normative Judaism supporters. Particular attention is paid to the Gers, a group within the subbotniks who identify themselves with Jews. The official authorities perceived the Judaizers as Jews, applying appropriate sanctions within the political discourse framework.

Assessing the suitability of settlement delineations for monitoring infilling: A web- and GIS-based expert evaluation approach

21st century urbanisation features not only the growth of city populations but also the emergence of densification (infilling) as significant trends in urban development. While urban sprawl has long been acknowledged for its adverse effects, understanding densification remains challenging due to inadequate empirical and statistical frameworks. This study investigates the suitability of different geospatial datasets and methods for delineating settlement areas and assessing infill housing, an aspect crucial for urban planning and development. Quantitative and qualitative analyses reveal notable variations in the classification of settlement areas and infilling across datasets. Quantitatively, the study shows distinct differences in the delineation of settlement areas, with the share of infilling varying significantly. Qualitatively, expert assessments highlight the strengths and weaknesses of datasets regarding their accuracy and consistency, revealing that the method to delineate settlement areas significantly impacts the balance between infilling and greenfield development. The study underscores the need for a nuanced approach to conceptualising densification measurement, particularly in defining urban boundaries.

New realities of the administrative-territorial structure of Ukraine and areas of ethnic minorities’ settlement: Geographical correlations and social consequences

This article analyses the ethno-geographical problems of the reformed system of administrative and territorial structure of Ukraine. The authors consider the alignment of newly created administrative units (rayons, territorial communities) and areas of compact settlement of ethnic minorities as a favourable prerequisite for the organisation of local self-government and the establishment of balanced and mutually beneficial ethno-political relations in the state. The analysis of the ethno-geographical parameters of ethnic minorities and the configuration of the newly created administrative-territorial units revealed that the population of ethnic minorities in Zakarpattia, Chernivtsi and Odesa oblasts was given the opportunity to organise territorial communities in which they constitute the majority. At the same time, studies have shown that it was not easy to implement this approach in the newly created administrative districts, given the officially defined criteria, the politicisation of the issue and the relatively high degree of mosaic settlement of ethnic groups. Therefore, the ethno-geographical factor was only partially taken into account in the formation of new administrative districts and the selection of district centres.

Bridging the distance: understanding access to healthcare through stories from Gwich’in medical travellers in Northwest Territories

ABSTRACT In northern Canada, medical travel – the movement of patients to a larger centre to access healthcare services outside their home community – is a dominant feature of the healthcare system. This qualitative study explored the medical travel experiences of Gwich’in living above the Arctic Circle in the Gwich’in Settlement Area in Northwest Territories (NT). Data collection in 2020 comprised storytelling sessions with 10 Gwich’in medical travellers (6 female, 4 male). Using inductive and deductive methods with continual critical reflexivity, and guided by Gwich’in values, concerns about access to healthcare were found to be at the heart of each story. A broad conceptualisation of access was applied to understand and interpret the results according to six dimensions: accessibility, availability, affordability, adequacy, acceptability, and awareness. Situated within a context of colonialism, structural inequities and other factors relevant across the Circumpolar North, the results suggest that the NT medical travel policy framework provides only partial access to care. This article illustrates a need for healthcare and other government systems to think about policy and programmes in a more wholistic, equitable and relationship-centred way, which would help not only to bridge distances across geography, but also between peoples.

Euroscepticism in the Russian-Speaking Community of Estonia: Modern Trends and Prospects

The attitude of Russian-speaking people living in the Republic of Estonia towards the processes of European integration has undergone some transformation since the restoration of Estonia’s independence in 1991 to the present day. A significant part of the representatives of national minorities in this state governed by Eurooptimistic political elites is attributed to a quite widespread Euroscepticism. This article is an attempt to analyze the features of Eurosceptic views among the modern large Russian-speaking community of Estonia, as well as to assess the extent of the spread of Eurosceptic ideas there. A typical portrait of a Eurosceptic Russian-speaking voter in Estonia is addressed, especially one who lives in areas of compact settlement of Russian speakers in this state. A circle of Eurosceptic parties in Estonia has been identified that have influenced the attitude of Russian-speaking residents of Estonia towards the EU. The content of the Eurosceptic beliefs of the Russian-speaking voter is revealed. The reasons for the traditional popularity of Eurosceptic ideas among the Russian- speaking population are determined, as well as the extent of anti-EU sentiment in the Russian-speaking community of Estonia. A number of factors have been identified that traditionally influence the sustainability of Euroscepticism in regions of Estonia with a significant Russian-speaking population. It is concluded that if in the 1990s an impressive part of the Russian-speaking residents experienced neutral or even Euro-optimistic sentiments ( largely due to their unfulfilled hopes for a qualitative improvement in their discriminatory situation after Estonia joined the EU), then while they gradually discovered that no radical transformations were expected (largely due to Brussels’ reluctance to put appropriate pressure on Tallinn), their generally pro-EU position transformed into Euroscepticism. The paper concludes that currently the Euroscepticism of the Russian-speaking population of Estonia is characterized by a trend towards a relative stabilization of the Eurosceptic sentiments of voters. The author using institutional and discursive methods makes a forecast on the future development of Eurosceptic sentiments among Russian-speaking residents in the medium term.

Playing outside, thriving inside: exploring the impact of outdoor play frequency on emotional intelligence in children aged 5–6

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine whether the emotional intelligence of 5–6 years preschool children differs significantly according to the frequency of outdoor play. The sample consists of 208 children and their parents. The data were collected through Sullivan’s Emotional Intelligence Scale for Children (EISC) and the Personal Information Form. The scale was administered individually to each child and took approximately 25 min. Firstly, we aim to determine whether the specific characteristics of the neighborhood environment play a role in shaping the frequency of outdoor play among children. Findings show that the frequency of children’s outdoor play is positively associated with the type of residence, and accessibility of outdoor play areas, while it is not linked with settlement area. Again, the frequency of outdoor play doesn’t differ according to the child’s gender, parents’ working status, and number of siblings, but differs according to maternal educational level. The main finding that as children’s frequency of outdoor play increases, emotional intelligence increases has important implications for parents, educators, and policymakers, emphasizing the potential benefits of incorporating outdoor play into children’s routines as a means of fostering emotional intelligence.

Experimental study on soil improvement by electrochemical injection coupled with anode movement technique

An improved electroosmotic method which involves coupling anode movement with injection of calcium chloride (CaCl2) solution into soils during the electroosmotic process was proposed in this paper. The laboratory-based experimental study was conducted in a custom-designed test set-up to assess the effectiveness of the proposed method. During the electroosmotic process, the drained water, drainage rate, electric current, electric resistance, power consumption, settlement, and penetration resistance were monitored. The experimental study showed that after treatment, the drainage volume was about 3.5 times that of the pure electroosmotic, 1.6 times that of the electroosmotic process with injection only, and 2.4 times that of the electroosmotic process with anode movement only. Further, electrochemical injection coupled with anode movement can significantly reduce the non-uniform electrochemical changes in the treated samples, resulting in a relatively uniform settlement and considerable cementation area throughout the sample. The results demonstrate that using this method can effectively alleviate anode corrosion, double the voltage gradient and mitigate the electric resistance increase, further enhancing electroosmotic treatment efficiency.

Bantuan PSU Perumahan bagi MBR pada Pelaksanaan Pekerjaan Jalan Lingkungan dengan Jenis Perkerasan Paving Block FC 20 M’pa

the provision of PSU components for housing build public houses in the form of single houses or row houses, which stimulant in the housing location built by the perpetrator Development. For 2021, PSU assistance will be in the form of roads the environment in the housing built by the developer. Article 54 paragraph (3) letter (h) Law Number 1 of 2011 concerning Housing and Settlement Areas states that The government provides facilities and/or development assistance and acquisition of housing for MBR in the form of providing infrastructure, facilities and public utility (PSU). In order to follow up on the mandate of the provisions of Article 54 paragraph (3) of Law No.1 of 2011 referred to, Ministry Public Works and Public Housing through the Directorate General Housing carries out activities to provide PSU Housing assistance to MBR.

Mapping The Dynamics of Settlement Areas around the tourism areas by Using Geographic Information Systems (Case Study: Prambanan and Kalasan District)

Abstract The construction of National tourism strategic area (KSPN) Prambanan - Kalasan is planned to begin in 2016 through the Master Plan and Detail Plan of KSPN Prambanan - Kalasan and its surroundings for the 2016 fiscal year. The development of tourist areas can have an impact on increasing the land value around tourist areas, and also cause the development of residential areas. Therefore, this research was conducted to analysis changes in land values around the KSPN development and also analysis changes in residential areas and the suitability of residential areas for land values in Prambanan and Kalasan Districts. The results of the suitability of residential areas were then superimposed on the analysis with the RDTR of Prambanan and Kalasan Regencies. The results show that in 2017-2024 there was an increase in residential land area by 67 hectares in Prambanan District and 73 hectares in Kalasan Regency and the highest significant increase in land value was in zone 50, namely Jl. Raya Solo-Yogyakarta for IDR. 6,597,200 and the lowest increase in land value was in zone 49 amounting to IDR. 158,500 to the north of Tamanmartani Village, Kalasan District. The relatively small increase in residential area in the highest land value zone and a large increase in residential area in the lowest land value zone. The suitability of the dominant residential area is very suitable in the highest land value zone and the suitability of the dominant residential area is less suitable in the lowest land value zone.

Morphological changes of river Bank Erosion and channel shifting assessment on Arial Khan River of Bangladesh using Landsat satellite time series images

The continuous processes of erosion and deposition in rivers are intricately linked to changes in land use and land cover (LULC), reflecting dynamic landscape transformations. This study investigates the rate of riverbank erosion, channel shifting, and the impact of erosion on LULC dynamics along the Arial Khan River. Utilizing GIS and remote sensing techniques, we analyzed time-series satellite images from 1993 to 2024 within a 2 km buffer zone of the floodplain. Supervised classification methods were applied for LULC analysis, with results validated using confusion matrices to assess classification accuracy. ArcGIS 10.8 was employed to analyze channel centerline migration, while NDVI analysis assessed vegetation health. The study reveals that between 1993 and 2024, 5142.60 ha were lost to erosion, while deposition affected 4756.52 ha, with erosion surpassing deposition overall. The river shifted an average of 0.66 km during this period, with higher migration rates in Muladi Upazila compared to Babuganj Upazila. Settlement areas expanded significantly from 137.82 ha in 1993 to 2768.68 ha in 2024, while agricultural land declined substantially. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers to address erosion severity in confluence zones and lay the groundwork for sustainable land management practices.

Design and Development of Budget Absorption Discipline Notification Application using SDLC Method

Optimal budget absorption in a region requires streamlined solutions. One such solution is simplifying the budget submission process through technology-based approaches. This study utilizes the SDLC methodology to create a durable application for Public Housing, Settlement Areas, and Human Settlement Offices, meeting their requirement for an effective budget submission tool. The SDLC method allows for continuous evaluation and development according to agency requirements. The outcome is APPA, a Budget Absorption Notification Application designed for the Public Housing, Settlement Areas, and Human Settlements Office in Jember. This application has helped to ensure that the budget approval process is not a sync point in achieving project deadlines. One of the aims of this research was to develop a technology-driven solution that could be implemented to increase optimal regional absorption which is expected can facilitate and accelerate budget execution and public service delivery more prettily than ever.

Neolithic formation of chernozem in south-eastern Germany?

The polygenetic development and age of black soils and Chernozems in Central Europe are widely discussed. The development and age of these soils in Germany is still not fully understood. While a significant share of Chernozems in Central Germany is assumed to have formed naturally during the early Holocene, such a natural formation can be excluded for all of southern Germany for paleoclimatic and –vegetative reasons. Therefore, soils with chernic horizons of natural origin are not to be expected south of the central German uplands. Active soil alteration by the human population in the Neolithic has also been observed to lead to Chernozem-like soils in other regions of Germany, like Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia. The unexpected black horizon investigated in this study is located close to Straubing in Bavaria, southeast Germany. The prevailing natural soil type in the area is a calcic Luvisol on loess substrate. The black horizon is located in close proximity to a neolithic settlement and its graveyard. We hypothesise that the inhabitants of the nearby neolithic settlement used the area with the black horizon as an agricultural field and were managing it actively. The core area with the most pronounced black horizon is rectangular and comprises within the excavation a surface of ca. 0.83 ha. Several decimetres of Holocene colluvium buried the black horizon in the Late Bronze Age and subsequent periods (OSL and 14C-Dating). Dating results from the black horizon prove human impact on the soil starting in the Linearbandkeramik (LBK) period (cal BC 5,209–4,911, 14C-Dating). NMR- and FTIR-DRIFT-analysis show high contents of pyrogenic carbon in the black horizon, which is responsible for its dark colour, even though the mean share of carbon is not higher than 0.50 ± 0.03 % (mean ± se). These results match those of recent literature and, therefore, indicate that neolithic farmers also applied their targeted soil amendment practices in southern Germany. This follows archaeological findings on the colonization of the area by the neolithic settlers: Primordially coming from the Fertile Crescent (northern Middle East), they followed the Danube through the Pannonian Region and brought their agronomic knowledge from the prior settlement area, where their active soil management is archaeologically proven.

Pedogenic evidence sheds light on the post-Roman pedo-sedimentological and human history of Tarsus, the Roman capital of CE 60, Cilicia, Mersin, Türkiye

The ancient city of Tarsus is underlying a sediment of 400 cm where the contemporary Tarsus grew. The diffusely stratified layers of the deposited sediment from the Kydnos (Tarsus) river overlying the Roman Road excavation site located in the heart of the modern city. The sediment is laden with technogenic materials. The profile of the stratigraphic layers represents a Pedocomplex (PDC) and its horizons are the Pedomembers (PDMs). All the PDMs were described and sampled for physical, chemical, mineralogical, micromorphological, and thermoluminescense analyses seeking pedogenic evidences. The origin of PDC materials is a fluvial and/or lagoon environment (archaeologically predicted date, about 60 CE, and they are calcareous, high in available P and some are high in total phosphorus contents). They have been partially modified by human activity in a settlement area, thus bringing some historical evidence suggesting that the site was part of the growing city after its abandonment. Thin sections show a vigorous biological degradation of the organic residues in the PDMs along with occasional evidence of soil-forming processes. The preliminary conclusions were extracted from the results obtained through the newly formed hydroxyapatite (Hap) determined by micromorphology, therefore proposing the new suffix π for the WRB soil naming system. Primary, high temperature and clay minerals together with TL analyses of the layers, were conducted to reveal the provenance and weathering phases of the horizons. The seeds recovered from an inhabited layer helped to interpret the food and medicinal habits of the local society and the contemporary presence of the lagoon.

Determination of Organic Carbon Content of the Soils within the Greenhouses Built on Pyroclastic Deposits in Isparta Settlement Area

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is an important indication of soil health and helps to sustain soil fertility. As a result, determining its composition and the factors that influence it is critical for long-term soil nutrient management, especially in controlled conditions such as greenhouses. This study utilizes machine learning to classify SOC content in greenhouses built on pyroclastic deposits in the Isparta region. A dataset of 276 samples and eight variables—clay (%), silt (%), sand (%), soil electrical conductivity (EC), pH, elevation, slope, and aspect—were used to model SOC values. SOC content was classified into five classifications: very low (2.3%). In this study, five machine learning models—Logistic Regression (LR), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Tree (DT), and Random Forest (RF)—were evaluated using cross-validation to determine their classification accuracy, precision, recall, F-score, and ROC area. Random Forest (RF) and Decision Tree (DT) outperformed the other models, with RF achieving the highest overall accuracy (76.4%), precision (77.3%), and AUC (0.904), followed by DT at 75.4% and AUC of 0.874. This study shows the practicality of machine learning models in categorizing SOC content, highlighting their importance for long-term soil health and fertility control in greenhouse conditions. To improve model efficacy, future studies should include more auxiliary variables, such as soil physical and chemical qualities and lithological data, as well as a wider range of soil types.

Assessing Settlement Suitability Using Road Network Analysis for Sustainable Urban Planning in Ambon City, Indonesia

The availability of infrastructure, particularly the road network, is a critical factor influencing the spatial distribution and suitability of land for settlement development in Ambon City. This study aims to assess settlement suitability by analyzing the relationship between settlement areas and their proximity to the road network, with a focus on supporting sustainable urban planning. Using road network data and SPOT 6 satellite imagery, the research employs a buffer technique to categorize settlements into three zones based on their distance from the nearest road: less than 100 meters, between 100 and 750 meters, and more than 750 meters. The findings reveal that settlements located within 100 meters of the road network cover 8,538.43 hectares, or 26.21% of the total settlement area. Settlements situated between 100 to 750 meters from roads account for 11,634.20 hectares (35.72%), while those farther than 750 meters from the road network occupy 12,401.05 hectares, representing 38.07% of the total settlement area. These results underscore the critical role that proximity to roads plays in determining the suitability of land for residential development, with a noticeable concentration of settlements closer to transportation infrastructure. The outcomes of this study provide valuable insights for urban planners and policymakers in Ambon City, offering a spatial understanding of settlement distribution that can guide future infrastructure development and land use policies.

Effects of land use changes on local dust event in Urmia Lake basin

Land use change is an effective factor in climate change and global warming, which contributes to the carbon cycle, radiant energy balance, and dust production. Urmia Lake basin water balance in the Northwestern part of Iran is in a critical condition due to land use change, drought, and climate change. This process has led to the lake water area reduction and pronounced dust production. The satellite images indicate that from 1984 to 2017, 1433 Km2 rangelands and water area of the Urmia Lake basin decreased by more than 2906 Km2. The area of human settlement increased by 550 Km2, irrigated farmland and orchards, 804 Km2, and salty marsh, 3428 Km2. The outputs of the WetSpass hydrological model reveal the highest coefficient of evapotranspiration and interception variation in the East of Urmia Lake basin. The effects of these changes are observed in reduced soil moisture, increased salty marsh, and soft sediments as potential dust resources. During the study period, the frequency of dust days in the North and East of the lake increased 2.5-fold, while in the Southern and Western parts increased 6-fold. The results of the Pettitt Test indicate that these changes began to appear in 2007. The regression and correlation test confirm that salt marshes and soft sediments account for up to 75 %, and the decrease in the area of Urmia Lake for more than 64 % of the dust changes. The results of the assessments indicate the contribution of footprint in the destruction of the natural environment and the water balance of the lake basin. Revision of water resources management and environmental water rights of the lake, changes in the development strategy from agriculture to non-agriculture development based on lower water demand, and reduction of storage dams are among the recommended strategies to address this problem.

Interdisciplinary insights into the cultural and chronological context of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum var. annuum L.) domestication in Mexico

This study investigates the temporal and spatial factors driving the domestication of Capsicum annuum var. annuum L. in Mexico. This species exhibits the greatest morphological diversity in fruit among Capsicum species-a characteristic that is even more pronounced in contemporary landraces cultivated by indigenous communities. Despite the chili pepper's integral role in regional culinary traditions, its domestication history in this region remains poorly understood, often subject to scholarly interpretations that marginalize or oversimplify archaeological evidence. To address this gap, our interdisciplinary team of archaeologists, botanists, and ecologists combine modern and archaeological Capsicum seed data, diachronic archaeological site locations, and ecological niche modeling to identify potential regions where early human populations and the closest wild ancestors may have coexisted. Our results show spatial correlations between early Capsicum distribution and archaeological site prevalence, suggesting that the beginning of the domestication process occurred in ecologically suitable areas for both wild Capsicum and human settlement. These findings challenge previous hypotheses regarding highland/dry cave domestication regions, as our data indicate that lowland regions-specifically the Yucatán Peninsula and southern coastal Guerrero-were more conducive to early encounters between wild Capsicum and humans. We propose a geographically diffuse and protracted model of chili pepper domestication-driven by a ruderal pathway-which involved at least two asynchronous events across Mexico.