Areas Of Afghanistan Research Articles

Rapid diagnostic tests to improve treatment of malaria and other febrile illnesses: patient randomised effectiveness trial in primary care clinics in Afghanistan

Objective To assess the impact of rapid diagnostic tests on the diagnostic accuracy and treatment of malaria and non-severe fever in an Asian setting. Design Patient randomised trial in primary...

Mapping irrigated areas in Afghanistan over the past decade using MODIS NDVI

Agricultural production capacity contributes to food security in Afghanistan and is largely dependent on irrigated farming, mostly utilizing surface water fed by snowmelt. Because of the high contribution of irrigated crops (>80%) to total agricultural production, knowing the spatial distribution and year-to-year variability in irrigated areas is imperative to monitoring food security for the country. We used 16-day composites of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor to create 23-point time series for each year from 2000 through 2013. Seasonal peak values and time series were used in a threshold-dependent decision tree algorithm to map irrigated areas in Afghanistan for the last 14years. In the absence of ground reference irrigated area information, we evaluated these maps with the irrigated areas classified from multiple snapshots of the landscape during the growing season from Landsat 5 optical and thermal sensor images. We were able to identify irrigated areas using Landsat imagery by selecting as irrigated those areas with Landsat-derived NDVI greater than 0.30–0.45, depending on the date of the Landsat image and surface temperature less than or equal to 310 Kelvin (36.9° C). Due to the availability of Landsat images, we were able to compare with the MODIS-derived maps for four years: 2000, 2009, 2010, and 2011. The irrigated areas derived from Landsat agreed well r2=0.91 with the irrigated areas derived from MODIS, providing confidence in the MODIS NDVI threshold approach. The maps portrayed a highly dynamic irrigated agriculture practice in Afghanistan, where the amount of irrigated area was largely determined by the availability of surface water, especially snowmelt, and varied by as much as 30% between water surplus and water deficit years. During the past 14years, 2001, 2004, and 2008 showed the lowest levels of irrigated area (~1.5 million hectares), attesting to the severe drought conditions in those years, whereas 2009, 2012 and 2013 registered the largest irrigated area (~2.5 million hectares) due to record snowpack and snowmelt in the region. The model holds promise the ability to provide near-real-time (by the end of the growing seasons) estimates of irrigated area, which are beneficial for food security monitoring as well as subsequent decision making for the country. While the model is developed for Afghanistan, it can be adopted with appropriate adjustments in the derived threshold values to map irrigated areas elsewhere.

Sustaining Rural Afghanistan under Limited Central Government Influence

Land and water access insecurity, land grabbing, and unstable common property status of critical local resources continue to drive conflicts, rural landlessness and environmental problems throughout many areas of Afghanistan where formal government is weak or entirely absent. In contrast to traditional development strategies that favor infrastructure enhancement and backed by enforced national policies, we offer Afghan-specific strategies based on resource conservation and increased capacity of local resource management institutions that can function when and where central government cannot be relied upon to assume or maintain a supportive role. Resource conservation and building local capacity are key components of existing and proposed future efforts to increase stability. However, support for these efforts, whether government or community-based, has been limited in portions of rural Afghanistan , apparently due to low stakeholder confidence in retaining access to improved land, water and other critical resources when international forces withdraw. Powerful individuals and groups, operating outside local community structures, are increasingly impacting land use practices. We suggest a thorough assessment of the present and likely future social environment, including awareness of likely conflicts resulting from agricultural or natural resource improvements, before any tangible actions are taken.

High levels of 1-hydroxypyrene and hydroxyphenanthrenes in urine of children and adults from Afghanistan

Among a health cooperation project, we had the opportunity to study the internal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure of residents from urban and rural areas in Afghanistan. Urine samples from 13 children (age 2.0-9 years) and 42 adults (age 20-65 years) were collected. A total of 25 participants were from Kabul, and 30 participants lived in a rural area. The determination of 1-hydroxypyrene and hydroxyphenanthrenes was carried out by high performance liquid chromatography and fluorescence detection. Median (range) were as follows (n=55): 1-hydroxypyrene 1646 ng/l (71-16,288 ng/l) and sum of 1-, 2- and 9-, 3-, 4-OH-phenanthrenes 3602 ng/l (116-19,670 ng/l). These results indicate a high PAH exposure, compared with the general population in more developed countries. The levels of 1-hydroxypyrene in urine of women (all non-smokers) from the rural area were higher than those from Kabul (N, median, range): rural 15, 2095, 334-11,357 ng/l; Kabul 11, 748,137-5332 ng/l. All households from the rural area used open fires for cooking and energy. We conclude that populations in low-developed countries may be at special risk to increased PAH exposure due to inadequate control of air pollution from car emissions and due to burning of biomass fuels for cooking and household energy.

High connectivity among argali sheep from Afghanistan and adjacent countries: Inferences from neutral and candidate gene microsatellites

We quantified population connectivity and genetic variation in the Marco Polo subspecies of argali mountain sheep (Ovis ammon polii) by genotyping 9 neutral and 8 candidate gene microsatellite loci in 172 individuals noninvasively sampled across five study areas in Afghanistan, China, and Tajikistan. Heterozygosity and allelic richness were generally high (mean H = 0.67, mean A = 6.1), but were significantly lower in the China study area (H = 0.61, P < 0.001; A = 4.9, P < 0.01). One marker in an immune system gene (TCRG4) showed an excess of rare alleles compared to neutral expectations. Another immune system gene (GLYCAM-1) showed excessive differentiation (high F ST) between study areas. Estimates of genetic differentiation were similar (F ST = 0.035 vs. 0.033) with and without the two loci deviating from neutrality, suggesting that selection is not a primary driver of overall molecular variation, and that candidate gene loci can be used for connectivity monitoring, as long as selection tests are conducted to avoid biased gene flow estimates. Adequate protection of argali and maintenance of inter-population connectivity will require monitoring and international cooperation because argali exhibit high gene flow across international borders.

Regional differences in delay to tuberculosis treatment in Afghanistan: A cross-sectional study

Delay in the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis is problematic. It results in increasing severity, mortality, and transmission of tuberculosis. Little is known about regional differences among delays. This study aims to compare total treatment delays (total delays) among tuberculosis patients between privileged and disadvantaged areas in Afghanistan, and to study the impacts of social, medical, and health system factors on the delays. A cross-sectional study of 259 newly diagnosed tuberculosis patients registered at the study sites (six hospitals and three clinics) was conducted from September 2008 to February 2009 using a structured questionnaire interview. The median total delay (interquartile range) was longer in the disadvantaged areas, 366.5 (274–444) days, than in the privileged areas, 62.0 (38–82) days ( p < 0.001). Using a cut-off of 60.0 days, the prevalence of delay >60 days was 71 (51.8%) in the privileged areas and 113 (92.6%) in the disadvantaged areas ( p < 0.001). Increasing numbers of visits (multiple visits) were associated with longer total delays in both privileged and disadvantaged areas ( p < 0.01), but unemployment was associated with longer total delays only in the PAs ( p < 0.05). Total delay is very much longer in the disadvantaged than in the privileged areas. The inability of health care providers to promptly diagnose tuberculosis is the key cause of delayed initiation of tuberculosis treatment. Increasing public awareness about tuberculosis and improving diagnostic capabilities of health care providers in both privileged and disadvantaged areas and active case finding in the remote and disadvantaged areas could help reduce delays in the commencement of tuberculosis treatment, decreasing their geographical disparity.

STATUS OF POMEGRANATE (PUNICA GRANATUM L.) CULTIVATION IN AFGHANISTAN

Pomegranate is among the main exported fruits of Afghanistan that is exported to Pakistan, Russia and Arabic Countries. Most of the pomegranate growing areas in Afghanistan are situated between 700-1500 m above sea level, and it can be grown in such ranges commercially. In Afghanistan 48 cultivars of pomegranate are available. 20 cultivars are sweet, 17 cultivars medium sweet and 11 cultivars sour. Among all of them the seedless cultivar is very famous. The area of pomegranate orchards in Afghanistan is 2435 ha and the average yield is 9.5 t/ha. Generally Afghan pomegranate has 14-19% sugar content. Pomegranate is propagated by cuttings; the cuttings are taken at the end of winter and planted 20-30 days before the dormancy ends. Injuries to pomegranate due to low temperature are reported from Balkh province. Sun scald is one of the pomegranate problems in Afghanistan. Many growers prefer the multi trunk system wherever frost and sun scald are common features. Usually only one or two trunks are injured by these climatic factors. Single stem training is common in warm areas where there is no cold risk in winter. Fruit cracking is a main problem of pomegranate that is common in all pomegranate growing areas of Afghanistan. Producers use common rooms as store for pomegranate.

Genetic structure of Plasmodium vivax isolates from two malaria endemic areas in Afghanistan

In this study, the nature and extent of genetic diversity of Plasmodium vivax populations circulating in Afghanistan have been investigated by analyzing three genetic markers: csp, msp-1, and msp-3α. Blood samples ( n = 202) were collected from patients presenting with vivax malaria from south-western (Herat) and south-eastern (Nangarhar) parts of Afghanistan, and analysed using nested-PCR/RFLP and sequencing methods. Genotyping pvmsp-1 revealed type 1, type 2 and recombinant type 3 allelic variants, with type 1 predominant in parasites in both study areas. The sequence analysis of 57 P. vivax isolates identified a total of 26 distinct alleles. Genotyping pvcsp gene showed that VK210 type (86.6%) is predominant in Afghanistan. Moreover, three major types of the pvmsp-3α locus: type A, type B and type C were distinguished among Afghani isolates. The predominant fragments among Nangarhar and Herat parasites were type A (70.8% and 67.9%, respectively). PCR/RFLP products with Hha I and Alu I were detected 52 and 38 distinct variants among Nangarhar and Herat isolates, respectively. These results strongly indicate that the P. vivax populations in Afghanistan are highly diverse.

A DOCTOR's LIFE IN THE WAKHAN CORRIDOR, 2002–2008

A description of over five years spent living and working as a doctor in a remote area of Afghanistan, inhabited by Ismailis. The article explains how western medical practices in e.g. child nutrition had to be adapted to local beliefs and circumstances and describes the physical challenges of delivering effective medical services in daunting terrain.

Diagnosing Cutaneous Leishmaniasis: The Advantage of Forward Deployed Histology in Avoiding a Surgical Pitfall

Military surgeons are often consulted for excisional debridement of skin lesions that fail to respond to medical therapy among soldiers who have been operating in areas of Afghanistan where cutaneous leishmaniasis is endemic. Wide surgical excision without knowledge of the primary etiology can lead to a surgical pitfall. Failure to properly treat cutaneous leishmaniasis, however, can lead to medical pitfalls of permanent disfigurement, deformity, and disability. Forward deployed surgeons should be supported by a laboratory that can confirm the presence of atypical organisms in biopsies of these lesions. With a x 100 microscope and Wright-Giemsa stains, a medical treatment facility is able to confirm cutaneous leishmaniasis, which allows for rapid transfer of soldiers for definitive antimicrobial therapy.

ヤカウラングとリバーテ・カルヴァーン

In the 1990's, when the civil war in Afghanistan was still fierce, a series of remarkable findings for Afghan archaeology, especially for historical archaeology, was made. The Buddhist site of the 8th century and accompanying Bactrian inscription unearthed near Tang-e Safedak, a small village lying about 125km west of Bamiyan, are counted among them. The northern Hazarajat, to which this Tang-e Safedak belongs, is one of the least documented areas in Afghanistan. The present paper tries to illuminate the history and geography of this area, investigating fragmental information found in the Arabic, Persian and Chinese sources.In the beginning of the 16th century, Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, and in the 19th century, a couple of British military officers, travelled from Herat along the Hari Rud river and reached Yakaulang, which is the present center of northern Hazarajat. In the 11th century, Ghaznavid Sultan Mas'ud b. Mahmud seems to have taken the same route when he took flight from Dandanagan where the decisive battle between Ghaznavids and Seljuqs was fought. After travelling through the Hari Rud riverine system, Mas'ud halted at a place called Ribat-e Karvan, which was described as a part of Guzgan and about 7 days journey from Ghazni. The identification of historical Ribat-e Karvan with modern Yakaulang leads us to a general outline of the history of northern Hazarajat from the 7th to the 12th centuries and may be of some help in the further research in the pre and early Islamic history of this area as well as northern Afghanistan.

Spatial Epidemiology ofPlasmodium vivax, Afghanistan

Plasmodium vivax is endemic to many areas of Afghanistan. Geographic analysis helped highlight areas of malaria risk and clarified ecologic risk factors for transmission. Remote sensing enabled development of a risk map, thereby providing a valuable tool to help guide malaria control strategies.

Restoration of Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems in Afghanistan

Barren, desert-like environments have been created over large areas in Afghanistan, and various degrees of desertification can be seen especially in the southwestern plains. Extensive overgrazing, frequent drought, and unwise land-use, have initiated processes of local desertification also elsewhere in Afghanistan.The first step in the restoration of depleted vegetation is to correct the improper uses that have been responsible for these conditions. Improper grazing practices of rangelands are a primary cause of reductions in the productivity of arid and semi-arid ecosystems in Afghanistan.The second step in restoration is to prepare a detailed revegetation plan. The following maps and information are needed: (1) a vegetation-cover map, (2) a soil-series map, (3) a topographic map, and (4) baseline data on climatic conditions. The vegetationcover map identifies the plant biomass potential and the species that might be suitable for revegetation. The soil-series map is accompanied by a description of the physical and chemical features of the topsoil and subsoil along with an assessment of the general herbage production potential. The topographic map helps with species selection and planting methods. The climatic parameters assist in determining the season of planting and any need for drought-resistant species to be planted.

Bactria in the Bronze Age

The discovery by the Soviet-Afghan Archeological Expedition of a previously completely unknown ancient farming culture in northern Afghanistan is of considerable interest in a number of respects. In the first place, a significant lacuna in our knowledge has been filled. Secondly, the possibility has arisen for the first time of connecting the contours of historical processes that occurred over an extensive area of Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia, and Pakistan during the Bronze Age. In a word, northern Afghanistan emerges, thanks to its central location, as the key region of intersection of ancient cultural contacts and traditions, behind which lies concealed the real history of tribes and peoples who performed on the stage of ancient Eastern civilization.

SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN SOILS OF AFGHANISTAN

Chemical, physical and micromorphological data are given for eight representative pedons from agricultural areas in Afghanistan. An explanation for the genesis of discoidal features is presented. Four soils are classified as Orthids, one as an Agrid, one as an Aquoll, and two as Fluvents.