Area Of Food Safety Research Articles

Science & EU Risk Regulation: The Role of Experts in Decision-Making and Judicial Review

This paper analyses the role that scientific experts and, more in general, scientific expertise play within European risk governance. While the first part of the paper looks at the way in which scientific expertise is integrated in the decision-making process, the second part examines how science and science-based measures are, or may be, judicially reviewed by European courts. This last part also ventures to suggest some ways to help the judge when reviewing science-based measures by looking into expert consultation systems and peer review mechanisms. In so doing, the paper will mainly refer to the area of food safety as it provides a privileged perspective from which to examine the development of an emerging European risk regulatory framework. Indeed, although confined to regulating food safety issues, the risk regulatory model which has been laid down by regulation 178/2002 in the aftermath of several 'food scandals' reflects the state of the art in the ongoing European reflection on risk governance.

Quality Management Procedures Influence the Food Safety Practices at Childcare Centers

Childcare in the United States (US) has become a necessary part of life for most working parents with the increased use of center-based childcare over the past three decades. Approximately 13 million preschoolers attend some form of childcare. Literature indicates the main predictors of quality childcare programs are adequate experience and specialized training of childcare staff. A growing concern among researchers, however, is the limited training among childcare professionals in the area of food safety. Children have minimal control of food safety risks because other people prepare their meals. A questionnaire was developed and mailed to childcare center directors in Texas and Iowa to identify the demographic, food safety and other practices that influence the training and decisions made by childcare center directors. Results indicate the need of continual management and food safety training for both directors and staff in order to provide a safe environment for young children.

AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD PRODUCTS CONTROL AND ITS EFFECTS ON COMPETITIVENESS

In economic developed countries, like European Union (EU), food safety is one of the topics that deserve special attention. It is well known fact that international trade is growing and that inter-connection of national economies is rising, so food safety and quality of products adjustment is becoming more significant for participants in international trade. This is especially important for Serbia, which is in the begging of accession process to European Union and World Trade Organization. In the course of Serbian efforts to join WTO and EU, Serbian must compile given action and activities in the area of quality and food safety, to enable economy and society to take part in competitiveness race based on “quality2. This paper emphasis the link between food safety and competitiveness of agricultural and food products, and its influence on specific part of food safety system in Serbia regarding to competitiveness.

Co-regulation as a possible model for food safety governance: Opportunities for public–private partnerships

Public concern about food safety is placing increasing pressure on government agencies to be more prescriptive and proactive in their regulation of the food industry. However, given the scarcity of public sector resources, concerns about the impact of regulation on competitiveness and the scale of the task at hand, there is growing interest in co-regulation, with public and private sectors working hand-in-hand to deliver safer food at lower (regulatory) cost. This paper explores the scope for the co-regulation of food safety in the UK and North America, where there are distinct differences in the established regulatory processes. The authors conclude that opportunities clearly exist, to varying degrees in the different countries analysed, but that considerable obstacles remain to the widespread adoption of co-regulatory practices in the area of food safety.

The Precautionary Principle and Food Safety

This review gives an overview of the arguments for and against the precautionary principle that have been advanced in the area of food safety. Extensive but not comprehensive coverage of relevant references is given. It begins with an introduction to the precautionary principle itself. After reviewing the arguments a rationale for the precautionary principle in the context of food safety is sketched.

Model Averaging Using the Kullback Information Criterion in Estimating Effective Doses for Microbial Infection and Illness

Since the National Food Safety Initiative of 1997, risk assessment has been an important issue in food safety areas. Microbial risk assessment is a systematic process for describing and quantifying a potential to cause adverse health effects associated with exposure to microorganisms. Various dose-response models for estimating microbial risks have been investigated. We have considered four two-parameter models and four three-parameter models in order to evaluate variability among the models for microbial risk assessment using infectivity and illness data from studies with human volunteers exposed to a variety of microbial pathogens. Model variability is measured in terms of estimated ED01s and ED10s, with the view that these effective dose levels correspond to the lower and upper limits of the 1% to 10% risk range generally recommended for establishing benchmark doses in risk assessment. Parameters of the statistical models are estimated using the maximum likelihood method. In this article a weighted average of effective dose estimates from eight two- and three-parameter dose-response models, with weights determined by the Kullback information criterion, is proposed to address model uncertainties in microbial risk assessment. The proposed procedures for incorporating model uncertainties and making inferences are illustrated with human infection/illness dose-response data sets.

Soft modelling in risk communication and management: examples in handling food risk

Our aim in this paper is to explore the use of soft modelling in an integrated risk communication and management process for managing uncertainties and ‘scares’ in the public domain, particularly in the area of food risk and safety. Much has been written in the past 20 years on the issues relating to the management and communication of food risks and safety issues to the public. Most of this research has been based upon post hoc studies of what went wrong—or, occasionally, right. Here we survey those findings briefly, and draw these into a general framework for risk management and communication. By integrating these into a coherent common framework, we believe that public authorities, food producers and industry may develop more effective strategies for managing and communicating risks which, in turn, will enable the public to make more informed decisions on their diet.

X-Train: Teaching Professionals Remotely

Increased popularity of the Internet, along with the development of new software applications have dramatically improved our ability to create and deliver online continuing education trainings to professionals in the areas of nutrition and food safety. In addition, these technological advances permit effective and affordable measurement of training outcomes, i.e., changes in knowledge, attitude, and behavior, that result from these educational efforts. Impact assessment of engagement programs is becoming increasing important for demonstrating the value of training activities to stakeholders. A novel software program, called X-Train, takes advantage of technological advances (databases, computer graphics, Web-based interfaces, and network speed) for delivering high-quality trainings to teachers and health care professionals. X-Train automatically collects outcome data, and generates and sends certificates of completion and communicates with participants through electronic messages. X-Train can be used as a collaborative tool whereby experts from various academic institutions are brought together to develop Web-based trainings. Finally, X-Train uses a unique approach that encourages cooperative extension specialists and educators to promote these educational opportunities within their state or county.

The Hazard analysis critical control point's (HACCP) concept as applied to some chemical, physical and microbiological contaminants of milk on dairy farms. A prototype

Summary Quality management on dairy farms becomes more and more important regarding the different areas of animal health, animal welfare and food safety. Monitoring animals, farm conditions and farm records can be extended with risk identification and risk management. The hazard analysis critical control point's system is useful as an on farm strategy to control the product as well as the production process on the areas of animal health, animal welfare and food safety. This article deals in detail with the question how to develop a qualitative method where risk can be defined as an interaction between probability and impact. Two parts of the production process (milk harvest and treatment of cows) where used as an example how to apply the hazard analysis critical control point's system on chemical, physical and microbiological contaminants of milk. Not just only by summarizing the different critical checkpoints for each area but also by giving them a precise judgement of probability and impact.

Anticipation and the surprises of everyday life

Anticipation calls into question the status of the future with respect to the past, which has become particularly problematic and complex in the “risk society”, where risk is now omnipresent, notably in everyday life: for example, the areas of food, health and urban security and safety. The author takes the recently launched idea of interstices of everyday life (IEL), which alludes to “in-between” situations as well as to experiences that are apparently overlooked but which have a bearing on emerging values and revive the center/periphery relationship: for example, waiting/expectation, breaks, silence, games, gifts. In this context, surprise is seen as an interstitial phenomenon: looking at the notion from the standpoint of the unpleasant or bad surprises of everyday life leads the author to examine the place assigned to it in the planning of activities in today’s time-oriented cultures. On this basis, the author advances some observations on certain trends and deadlocks of our social systems. One major example discussed is the tragedy of 11 September 2001.

Potential application of gene expression fingerprinting for food safety screening

Drug residues or contaminants with unwanted adverse effects may include tens of thousands of synthetic or natural substances. Although most of these chemicals are usually present in the food at harmless concentrations, it is a tremendous task to identify those samples that pose a possible health hazard to the consumer. Current monitoring actions involve, in most cases, single-endpoint screening tests that detect only a unique chemical entity or a limited group of related substances. One major challenge in the area of food safety is, therefore, the development of multi-endpoint strategies that could increase the efficiency of high-throughput screening procedures. Here, we used human cell lines derived from breast epithelium (MCF-7 and T-47D) to explore the potential impact of microarray-based transcriptomic analyses in allowing the simultaneous detection of a large number of different residues or contaminants. Both cell lines yielded characteristic expression profiles upon exposure to representative chemicals that are often found in food products. Interestingly, this pilot study suggests that T-47D cells respond to treatment with different xenoestrogenic chemicals with distinct expression profiles. Thus, the use of oligonucleotide microarrays may considerably expand the range and improve the specificity of existing reporter bioassays.

Management-Based Regulation: Prescribing Private Management to Achieve Public Goals

We analyze a little-studied regulatory approach that we call management-based regulation. Management-based regulation directs regulated organizations to engage in a planning process that aims toward the achievement of public goals, offering firms flexibility in how they achieve public goals. In this article, we develop a framework for assessing conditions for using management-based regulation as opposed to the more traditional technology-based or performance-based regulation. Drawing on case studies of management-based regulation in the areas of food safety, industrial safety, and environmental protection, we show how management-based regulation can be an effective strategy when regulated entities are heterogeneous and regulatory outputs are relatively difficult to monitor. In addition to analyzing conditions for the use of management-based regulation, we assess the range of choices regulators confront in designing management-based regulations. We conclude that management-based regulation requires a far more complex intertwining of the public and private sectors than is typical of other forms of regulation, owing to regulators’ need to intervene at multiple stages of the production process as well as to the degree of ambiguity over what constitutes “good management.”

An Opinion Paper: Strengthening the Weakest Link in Food Safety

Canadian Institute of Public Health Inspectors, White Rock, British Columbia This paper is modified from a submission awarded the Stanier Prize by the Stanier Institute/Institut Stanier. Correspondence and reprints: Ms S Bourne, c/o Canadian Institute of Public Health Inspectors, PO Box 75264, 15180 North Bluff, White Rock, British Columbia V4B 5L4. Telephone 519-873-5122, fax 519-873-5020, e-mail shawna.bourne@ene.gov.on.ca THE PUBLIC HEALTH INSPECTOR PERSPECTIVE In today’s global arena the last line of defense in food safety is always the consumer. An educated and resourceful client has the ability to compensate for any weak links in the food safety chain. The role of effectively disseminating information on food safety falls into the domain of the public health inspector (PHI), within the local health unit. However, this responsibility is often overlooked because PHIs and other government regulators seek to make producers, suppliers and retailers more responsible for the quality and safety of the food that we, as Canadians, enjoy and take for granted. The mandate of the Canadian Institute of Public Health Inspectors (CIPHI) is to “...protect the health of all Canadians on environmental issues while promoting the science of environmental health and the profession” (1). We meet this mandate through education and the enforcement of food safety standards. Environmental Health Officials also undertake the challenge of ensuring accountability from primary producer to processor. This dual role of educator and enforcer is a difficult act to balance, yet important to achieve our goal of optimal food safety. Information describing the extent of food safety problems is limited. The best current information for health professionals, planners, and public health agencies responsible and accountable for local food safety is the estimate that 2.2 million Canadians suffer from food borne illnesses each year (2), but these data are very incomplete. The Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI) annual report (3) noted a fundamental information gap in public health exists in the area of food and water safety. We don’t know “how many Canadians become ill each year because of unsafe food or water [and] what are the shortand long-term health consequences of their illness?” (3). Dr Douglas Powell (4) of the University of Guelph notes:

Survival of Escherichia coli in foods.

Studies describing the survival of Escherichia coli in foods, more often than not use the O157:H7 serovar as the target organism. Whilst E. coli O157:H7 is undoubtedly the predominant agent of concern for foodborne disease caused by enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), a consequence of this concern is the commonly held view that this one serovar is 'atypical' in its response to stress conditions and therefore better able to survive adverse environments. Many of the studies published do not make comparisons with other E. coli (either commensal organisms or other pathogenic types) or other members of the Enterobacteriaceae, that would justify this view. Nevertheless, there has been a great deal of valuable data and information generated describing the fate of E. coli O157:H7 in a range of foods stored under various conditions. In many respects, the results of these studies are not surprising considering the survivability of other closely related pathogens, such as Shigella spp. This ability to survive in foods for long periods of time confirms the need for reliable control measures where contamination is possible or likely, e.g. proper handling and thorough cooking of beefburgers. The factors that may influence survival in different foods are described, with the intention of providing an insight in this area of food safety. Key considerations for carrying out survival studies are identified, with particular reference to methodologies used.

ASSESSING STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD ANIMAL WELFARE, RESOURCE USE, AND FOOD SAFETY

The purpose of this study was to determine if participation in a program addressing contemporary issues in animal agriculture had an effect on the students attitudes towards animal welfare, resource use, ' and food safety. The students in this study were participants in the Pennsylvania Governor's School for Agricultural Sciences (PGSAS). Within the five-week PGSAS program, students completed a two-week unit titled “Contemporary Issues in Animal Agriculture. " Three main issues were examined: animal welfare, resource use, and food safety as they relate to animal agriculture. The students ranked food safety as the primary concern with resource use second, and animal welfare third. Scholars with agricultural backgrounds rated specific issues as more beneficial to society than did scholars without agricultural backgrounds. Within the food safety area, both groups identified microbial contamination as the primary issue of concern. With regard to resource use, deforestation was ranked first, and in the animal welfare area, the pre-course issue of greatest concern was providing shelter. Upon completion of the course, within the animal welfare area, animal transportation became a topic of increased concern for both groups. Overall results showed decreased concern after the course by both groups of scholars.

Food Practices and Nutrition Knowledge after Graduation from the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP)

The Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) is a federally funded nutrition program designed to educate low-income families about key areas of nutrition and food safety. This study examined the benefits gained and maintained by participants in EFNEP in food practices, nutrition knowledge, nutrient intake, and other areas. A prospective, within-subject design was used to examine a randomly selected sample of 59 EFNEP graduates in two New York State counties. Self-reported information was gathered at entry into EFNEP, graduation from the program, and follow-up 1 year after completion of the program. Analyses used bivariate chisquare and t-tests and multivariate regression. Food budgeting, food preparation, food safety practices, and nutrition knowledge improved between entry and graduation. Most increases in knowledge and reported practices were maintained between graduation and follow-up. Few differences in reported nutrient intake were present between entry, graduation, and follow-up. Additional reported changes beyond food and nutrition occurred in education, employment, health, and community involvement. Overall, participation in EFNEP increased the nutrition knowledge and food management skills of low-income women. Many of these proficiencies persisted after completion of the program, and other benefits of the program occurred. Future analyses are needed to evaluate immediate and longer term effects of EFNEP in diverse audiences, with larger samples, using more powerful research designs, and including additional validated measures.

Discussion

Retail food establishment inspection is a longestablished component of public health efforts to protect the public against foodborne illness. Poor sanitary practices in food storage, handling, and preparation increase risk of foodborne illness, with campylobacter and salmonella the most common bacterial agents thus transmitted. Restaurants with higher restaurant inspection scores have been found to be associated with lower incidence of foodborne infection.1 Retail food establishment inspections are conducted in a variety of food establishments including restaurants, bakeries and retail food processors, retail markets, and mobile venues such as trucks and carts. The core elements of most restaurant inspection programs include assuring practices that maintain stored food free of contamination, food preparation that minimizes potential cross-contamination, storage of prepared foods at required temperatures, and effective sanitation of utensils and dishes used in food preparation and serving. Although core elements of inspections are usually consistent, the specific requirements, frequency of inspection, acceptable practices, and consequences of noncompliance exhibit considerable variation among states and local jurisdictions. There is mixed evidence regarding the effect of either the frequency of inspections or food safety training of managers and food handlers on improving food safety. Riben and colleagues2 found evidence that inspections were beneficial, although it was unclear if three or more inspections per year were better than two. These authors also concluded that training of food handlers results in better inspection scores, suggesting improved establishment sanitation, but this difference is short lived; they found no literature assessing the long-term outcome of such interventions. In a more recent prospective study,3 restaurants for which managers were mandated to attend a training and certification program demonstrated a significant improvement in inspection scores in some areas of food safety, sustained over a two-year follow-up period. Food establishment inspection in Los Angeles County (LAC), excluding the cities of Long Beach, Vernon, and Pasadena, is the responsibility of the Division of Environmental Health Service (EHS) of the Los Angeles Health Department under the California Health and Safety Code. There are approximately 36,000 food establishments covered by this code. Inspection costs are defrayed by fees set by the LAC Board of Supervisors at a level sufficient to cover program costs based on budget projections and audit of prior expenses.

A Healthier Future Home Study Program For Child Care Providers

The 1992 survey. Food and Nutrition of Child Care Programs in Washington State, states there is a lack of knowledge among child care providers in the areas of nutrition, sanitation and food safety. Child care providers cite the lack of convenience, funding and accessibility as the primary obstacles to training. To overcome these problems, A Healthier Future Home Study Program was developed. The program is based on The Healthy E.D.G.E in Schools which utilizes the Dietary Guidelines and a team concept. Such issues as nutrition, recipe modification, labeling laws, food safety, picky eaters and marketing nutrition to parents were included in the manual's five lessons. Each lesson contains a self- administered quiz and evaluation form used to monitor the subjects progress and evaluate lesson acceptance. A pre-test and post-test were used to evaluate the effectiveness of training. A demographics survey was used to characterize the subjects and a telephone survey was administered to assess reasons for non-compliance. The pilot study assessed 44 licensed home child care providers whose mean test score increased from 77% to 94% following training. Currently, 250 home child care providers are participating in a second round of testing.

FOOD SAFETY POLICY FIGHTS: A U.S. PERSPECTIVE

Perspective is very important in understanding the area of food safety. This importance is illustrated by a favorite cartoon of mine that features an older, experienced mouse giving advice to a young mouse. The older mouse, in wrapping up, says to the younger, . . . and stay away from scientists— they cause cancer. Facing an avalanche of information on links between diet and health, consumers may, in frustration, sympathize with the mouse's view, and are having some difficulty sorting out which are the important cause-and-effect relationships. Government and industry also are struggling to develop a coherent approach to food safety and nutrition. Here, I stretch the term food safety to cover all linkages between diet and health, including traditional safety concerns (e.g., microbial contamination, pesticide residues, additives, naturally occurring toxicants, and environmental contaminants), as well as the increasingly prominent area of links between dietary composition and health (e.g., between dietary fiber and cancer). In the United States, both types of diet-health linkages have been front-page news throughout the late 1980s. A short review of some key events will serve to set the stage. In 1985 the largest recorded outbreak of salmonella-related food poisoning in the United States occurred in the Chicago area when, it is believed, unpasteurized and pasteurized milk were mixed in a processing plant owned by the Jewel Companies, a supermarket chain. There were over 16,000 confirmed cases of salmonellosis as a result and experts believe more than ten times that number were actually affected (Ryan et al.). In 1986 the U.S. General Accounting Office (1986a, 1986b) released two reports concluding, in effect, that the Food and Drug Administration's (PDA) inspection system for pesticide residues in domestic and imported food was woefully inadequate. In 1987 the television show 60 Minutes aired a report, considered infamous in the eyes of in-

Food Safety Policy Fights: A U.S. Perspective

Perspective is very important in understanding the area of food safety. This importance is illustrated by a favorite cartoon of mine that features an older, experienced mouse giving advice to a young mouse. The older mouse, in wrapping up, says to the younger, “… and stay away from scientists—they cause cancer.” Facing an avalanche of information on links between diet and health, consumers may, in frustration, sympathize with the mouse's view, and are having some difficulty sorting out which are the important cause-and-effect relationships. Government and industry also are struggling to develop a coherent approach to food safety and nutrition.