Area Of Barcelona Research Articles

The water-energy vulnerability in the Barcelona metropolitan area

This paper focuses on the water-energy nexus in low income households. Water, electricity and gas constitute fundamental resources for households that interplay throughout many daily activities. However, in studies on household poverty, there is a tendency to treat water and energy separately. In this contribution, we argue for the joint consideration of both forms of deprivation and present empirical evidence for the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (AMB). In Barcelona, the dynamics between water and energy poverty in households widened the scope of institutional measures on energy poverty by incorporating water poverty as part of guaranteeing the ‘right to basic utilities’. We document the interactions between the two resources through the water-energy nexus approach by combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Apart from presenting the expenditure-based analysis of the Spanish Survey of Income and Living Conditions, which reveals that a significant part of the population is both water and energy poor, with the results from our semi-structured interviews, we are able to demonstrate how much importance and value the affected households give to their thermal and hydric (dis)comfort, which in turn, exerts a direct impact on their daily hygiene and health. The paper also highlights institutional and socio-technical perspective as the differences in ownership and regulatory status of both resources cause discordances in public efforts to alleviate the status of the water and energy poor.

Locating Software, Video Game, and Editing Electronics Firms: Using Microgeographic Data to Study Barcelona

ABSTRACTThis paper analyzes location patterns of software, video game, and editing electronics firms (hereafter SVE) in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona using microgeographic data. These industries are mainly attracted by agglomeration economies look to benefit from skilled labor and spillover effects, and tend to cluster in large metropolitan areas. However, less is known about their detailed location patterns inside these areas. We contribute to the empirical literature by identifying how SVE firms are concentrated in some core areas of the metropolitan area. Our empirical application includes using the Nearest Neighbor Index (NNI) and M-functions, as well as local spatial autocorrelation indicators.

Simultaneous analysis of 11 haloacetic acids by direct injection-liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry and high resolution mass spectrometry: occurrence and evolution in chlorine-treated water.

A fast, simple, selective, and sensitive method for the analysis of 11 haloacetic acids (HAAs) in chlorine-treated water has been developed. The method is based on liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-QqQ-MS/MS) with direct injection of the aqueous sample. The main novelty of this method over the previously published procedures based on different techniques of mass spectrometry with direct injection is the combination of the simultaneous analysis of three types of HAAs (chlorinated, brominated, and iodinated) with its simplicity and low LODs (0.01-0.6μg/L), avoiding the use of ion-pairing reagents for LC as well as the complexity and high cost of other techniques such as ion chromatography and capillary electrophoresis coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (IC-MS/MS and CE-MS/MS). The developed method was compared with another procedure carried out in our laboratory based on direct injection-liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-high-resolution mass spectrometry with an Orbitrap analyzer (LC/ESI-Orbitrap-HRMS). The application of this technique to HAA analysis had not been previously described. LODs achieved by LC-HRMS (0.01-2μg/L) were higher than the ones obtained by LC-MS/MS. Therefore, the LC/ESI-QqQ-MS/MS method was applied to the analysis of real samples. Quality parameters were calculated with satisfactory results and real samples related to three drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), tap water, and the drinking water distribution system of Barcelona area (Catalonia, NE Spain) were analyzed. Furthermore, the evolution of HAA concentration along time in a DWTP-treated water sample was studied.

Aquaculture perceptions in the Barcelona metropolitan area from fish and seafood wholesalers, fishmongers, and consumers

Aquaculture provides more than half of the global seafood production and offers a wide diversity of high-quality products. However, its social acceptability is still not well established. The goal of this study was to determine the perceptions of aquaculture by different stakeholders along the seafood value chain in the Barcelona metropolitan area. The methodology used was based on a two-phase qualitative approach: the nominal group technique (NGT) and the Delphi survey. In the NGT phase, three groups, wholesalers, fishmongers and consumers, the latter divided into two subgroups according to the frequency of consumption of seafood, were used to collect and rank positive and negative perceptions about aquaculture. This information was subsequently used to build the questionnaire for the Delphi survey, which involved a group of experts from the board of the Wholesalers' Association, Fishmongers' Guild board and consumers' associations. Results showed that among the different stakeholders the highest concordance in positive aspects of aquaculture products included market issues and the stable quality of farmed products. On the other hand, the highest concordance in negative aspects included the lack of sufficient information about aquaculture, which was a serious issue for all stakeholders, and quality. Globally, animal welfare and environmental impact issues were not of much concern, although they included some minor positive and negative perceptions. The diversity of opinions among experts on certain aspects further emphasizes the need for more information, as they could have a potential role as information prescribers to consumers. We argue that information campaigns can take advantage of the positive perception of market issues (convenience, price, diversity) and quality stability to create a favourable predisposition towards aquaculture and thus help to introduce other problems in which perceptions generate a stronger debate. In communication or marketing campaigns, it is essential to highlight the quality and safety of farmed products, with a particular emphasis on the quality of fish feed as a guarantee of optimal nutritional and organoleptic properties of aquaculture products. Welfare and environment generate minor negative perceptions, so they should appear in campaigns, with a firm focus on the sustainability of the aquaculture sector, to improve its general image. In summary, the results of this study contribute to identifying the most relevant aspects to be taken into account to improve the public perception of aquaculture in the Barcelona area and may be of help in the design of similar efforts elsewhere.

When language mixing is the norm: documenting post-muda language choice in a state school in Barcelona

Abstract This article studies the language uses of a group of new speakers of Catalan at a secondary school in a metropolitan working class area of Barcelona, who have experienced their linguistic mudes as a consequence of having being schooled in the Catalan education system from an early age. As shown in previous research on children of economic migrants in Catalonia, these students internalize and reproduce the language distribution of Catalan and Spanish that they are exposed to in their immediate environment. This will vary according to the locality in which they find themselves, in our case, a working class neighborhood in which Catalan is reserved as the vehicular language of instruction, while Spanish dominates as the language of social relations. The article adopts a language socialization perspective to give account of the linguistic competences these multilinguals display when carrying out an academic task. Translanguaging, in the form of language alternation and language mixing from the various repertoires that these students have at their disposal, emerges as the norm among them and their teachers in this school. This article embraces the idea that documenting the linguistic practices of new speakers can shed light on actual linguistic uses and trajectories after the linguistic muda takes place.

Genetically similar hepatitis E virus strains infect both humans and wild boars in the Barcelona area, Spain, and Sweden.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a hepatotropic virus, endemic in Europe where it infects humans and animals, with domestic pigs and wild boars as main reservoirs. The number of HEV-infected cases with unknown source of infection increases in Europe. There are human HEV strains genetically similar to viruses from domestic pigs, and zoonotic transmission via consumption of uncooked pork meat has been shown. Due to continuous growth of the wild boar populations in Europe, another route may be through direct or indirect contacts with wild boars. In the Collserola Natural Park near Barcelona, Spain, the wild boars have spread into Barcelona city. In Sweden, they are entering into farmlands and villages. To investigate the prevalence of HEV and the risk for zoonotic transmissions, the presence of antibodies against HEV and HEV RNA were analysed in serum and faecal samples from 398 wild boars, 264 from Spain and 134 from Sweden and in sera from 48 Swedish patients with HEV infection without known source of infection. Anti-HEV was more commonly found in Spanish wild boars (59% vs. 8%; p<0.0001) while HEV RNA had similar prevalence (20% in Spanish vs. 15% in Swedish wild boars). Seven Swedish and three Spanish wild boars were infected with subtype 3f, and nine Spanish with subtype 3c/i. There were three clades in the phylogenetic tree formed by strains from wild boars and domestic pigs; another four clades were formed by strains from humans and wild boars. One strain from a Spanish wild boar was similar to strains from chronically infected humans. The high prevalence of HEV infections among wild boars and the similarity between wild boar HEV strains and those from humans and domestic pigs indicate that zoonotic transmission from wild boar may be more common than previously anticipated, which may develop into public health concern.

Perfiles de soledad y aislamiento social en población urbana

ObjectiveTo assess the prevalence of loneliness and social isolation in a population over 65 cared by a urban primary health team and to identify its main characteristics. DesignCross-sectional descriptive study by a telephone survey. SettingBasic health area of Barcelona. ParticipantsRandom sample of assigned population of 65 or more years old. Main measurementsUCLA Loneliness Scale and Lubben Social Network Scale. Results278 persons were interviewed (61,36% response rate), 172 women and 106 men, with an average age of 76,7 ± 7,9 years. A higher proportion of factors related to loneliness were identified in non-respondents. Loneliness was closely correlated to social r = 0,736. Moderate loneliness, with a prevalence of 16,54%, was associated to walking difficulties (OR 3,09, 95%, IC 1,03-9,29), cognitive impairment (OR 3,97, 95% IC 1,19-13,27) and architectural barriers (OR 5.29, 95% IC 2.12-13,23), although severe loneliness, with a prevalence of 18,71% was only associated to living together with less people (OR 0.61, 95% IC 0.40-0.93). Social isolation, with a prevalence of 38,85% was associated to aging (OR 1,06, 95% IC 1,02-1,10) and to the belief of having health problems (OR 4,35, 95% IC 1,11-16,99). ConclusionsLoneliness and social isolation are of high prevalence. The telephone survey underestimates its prevalence. There are 2profiles of loneliness, one with moderate associated to the socialisation difficulties related to aging and another severe not related to health or to barriers that only can be identified by surveys or clinical interview. Interventions must be targeted to each of these profiles.

Analysis of the consumer’s perception of urban food products from a soilless system in rooftop greenhouses: a case study from the Mediterranean area of Barcelona (Spain)

Soilless crops are commonly used in rooftop agriculture (RA) because they easily adapt to building constraints. However, acceptance of the produce derived from this system may be controversial. This paper evaluates consumers’ acceptance of food from RA in Mediterranean cities, focusing on the quality of the product, production system, and consumers’ motivations. We surveyed 238 respondents on the UAB university campus as potential consumers. The survey was distributed via an Internet-link that was provided along with a sample of tomatoes from RA. The results showed that most people approved the quality of RA products and perceived them to be local and fresh (94%). The respondents exhibited acceptance of soilless-produced tomatoes and considered them to be environmentally better than conventionally produced ones (69%). Cluster analysis revealed that consumers with high income levels and a university education had a better perception of the quality and proposed a higher price for RA products, but no difference was found regarding their environmental perception of this products. Moreover, people who possessed more information about the product also had a higher perception of the quality and production system (it was perceived to be environmentally friendly) and would pay more for them. The main concerns of consumers were related to food safety and the social impact of RA. Additional research is needed to improve the sustainability of RA, and the applied measures should be communicated to potential consumers to enhance their acceptance and success.

Socio spatial characterization of Large Housing Estates in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona

Fifty years after the construction of Large Housing Estates in the periphery of the Barcelona urban continuum, public administrations face the need to redesign polices and tools aimed at improving living conditions in each of these specific areas. The need to improve the current living conditions of the housing stock according to habitability exigencies, maintenance and repair of building pathology, the improvement of energy efficiency and the research of a better social integration of their population, are some of the issues that call for being addressed when aiming to improve Large Housing Estates. The current research provides a socio spatial characterization of 20 study cases according to the evaluation of both socio demographic, socio economic and spatial indicators and their evolution along 5 time periods since their construction. Even if all study cases originally had many common characteristics, their very different evolution in time calls for a specific analysis of the current state of each area. Moreover, the characterization of the different evolution of the studied indicators on each specific case is a very useful tool to identify and describe past and ongoing complex social and urban processes. The applied methodology provides a detection of risk parameters, allowing to identify the most vulnerable cases in comparison with the analysed cases as well as the city average indicators. The transversal capacity of considering simultaneously social aspects as well as urban, architectonic and technological aspects, provides an integral view on the current state of Large Housing Estates in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona. A result consisting of relevant information in order to design effective integral tools that refer to the particular social and physical contemporary conditions and ongoing processes on each site.

Evaluation of N2O Emissions in Wastewater Treatment Systems: a Comparative Analysis of Emission Between Case Studies of Developed and Developing Countries

N2O is a GHG of environmental concern. It is generated from the nitrous material contained in wastewater and is the sixth most important contributor to N2O emissions. There is a great variety of methods to quantify the emission of N2O in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), which present variants among them, such as predetermined values and operational data of the plants. In this paper, we compared three different methods to quantify the N2O emission in 2015 from WWTP in two metropolitan areas with high population density: Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (MAB). MAB has advanced treatment plants that remove nutrients from wastewater, and Mexico City has only traditional treatment plants. The N2O emission/inhabitant from WWTPs in MAB (3,214,211 inhabitants served) was 40% lower than the plants in Mexico City (1,806,440 inhabitants served). The MAB emission was 0.009 tCO2e/inhabitant and 0.013 tCO2e/inhabitant in Mexico City; these emission values could be considered statistically different with a risk error of 5%. This difference could be due to the fact that MAB has nutrient removal (42% of inhabitants served), and Mexico City has only traditional treatment plants. The results obtained may be influenced by the default emission factors of each methodology. In addition, per capita protein consumption and water consumption per inhabitant are different parameters that must be considered between these zones to quantify and compare the emission of N2O. The integral methods are closer to the reality of the N2O emission when the operating parameters of each plant and wastewater are considered. There should be more research on the reduction of this GHG in wastewater treatment for a correct quantification of these emissions, and more especially in the estimation of N2O emission factors suitable for each treatment plant and study area.

Mobile phone records to feed activity-based travel demand models: MATSim for studying a cordon toll policy in Barcelona

Activity-based models appeared as an answer to the limitations of the traditional trip-based and tour-based four-stage models. The fundamental assumption of activity-based models is that travel demand is originated from people performing their daily activities. This is why they include a consistent representation of time, of the persons and households, time-dependent routing, and microsimulation of travel demand and traffic. In spite of their potential to simulate traffic demand management policies, their practical application is still limited. One of the main reasons is that these models require a huge amount of very detailed input data hard to get with surveys. However, the pervasive use of mobile devices has brought a valuable new source of data. The work presented here has a twofold objective: first, to demonstrate the capability of mobile phone records to feed activity-based transport models, and, second, to assert the advantages of using activity-based models to estimate the effects of traffic demand management policies. Activity diaries for the metropolitan area of Barcelona are reconstructed from mobile phone records. This information is then employed as input for building a transport MATSim model of the city. The model calibration and validation process proves the quality of the activity diaries obtained. The possible impacts of a cordon toll policy applied to two different areas of the city and at different times of the day are then studied. Our results show the way in which the modal share is modified in each of the considered scenarios. The possibility of evaluating the effects of the policy at both aggregated and traveller level, together with the ability of the model to capture policy impacts beyond the cordon toll area confirm the advantages of activity-based models for the evaluation of traffic demand management policies.

CREANDO VÍNCULOS ENTRE UNIVERSIDAD Y COMUNIDAD: EL PROYECTO SHERE ROM, UNA EXPERIENCIA DE APRENDIZAJE SERVICIO EN LA FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGÍA DE LA UNIVERSITAT AUTÒNOMA DE BARCELONA

In this article we describe the project Shere Rom, a network of links between the Autonomous University of Barcelona, gypsie communities and public schools in the metropolitan area of Barcelona. The analysis of the experience highlights two key elements of service learning: a) the project promotes the social return of the university to society, responding to real needs through educational intervention that is developed under the frame of research projects; b) promotes, in college students, the acquisition of knowledge and the development of its own training curriculum skills through participation in a real project and community involvement. After 16 years, with a participation each year between 110 and 140 UAB students and between 250 and 300 children from different ethnic minorities, we can describe the potential that the project offers to each of its participants.

Li-per-els[i] o la despronominalització del clític datiu en català: un fenomen incipient

L’objectiu d’aquesta contribució és estudiar un fenomen d’aparició recent en llengua catalana que, a priori, sembla contradir els fonaments de la cohesió referencial. Es tracta del sorgiment, en català, d’un fenomen paral·lel al que en la tradició lingüística de l’espanyol s’ha convingut a anomenar le-por-les, i que en català anomenem li-per-els[i]. Es tracta de l’ús del clític datiu singular en la duplicació d’un objecte indirecte plural, com en Li[sg.] he donat el llibre als nens[pl.]. Veurem que aquest fenomen, cada cop més present en parlars com els valencians i els de l’àrea de Barcelona, es pot caracteritzar com un cas de despronominalització del pronom feble de datiu, fruit de la generalització de la duplicació de clític datiu que s’ha produït, justament, en aquestes àrees. A mesura que la duplicació esdevé sistemàtica, li perd el seu estatus de pronom anafòric i, desproveït de qualsevol traça de concordança, esdevé un mer marcador gramatical en el verb, una mena d’afix que assenyala la presència d’un argument prominent, l’objecte indirecte. Presentem una varietat de factors que poden crear les condicions en les quals aquest afix verbal (el clític datiu no concordant) esdevé necessari. Finalment, proporcionem una anàlisi formal basada en l’assumpció que els clítics duplicadors són la realització d’un nucli aplicatiu, responsable d’introduir l’OI en l’estructura.

Water demand management strategies for water-scarce cities: The case of Spain

This paper provides an overview of pricing and non-pricing measures to reduce domestic water consumption at the household levels in five urban areas in Spain. Analyses are based on questionnaires sent to water utilities that provide water services in the metropolitan areas of Barcelona and Seville, the cities of Malaga and Saragossa and the region of Madrid. Our main contribution is that, compared to studies that are based on estimates of the water demand function, we asked directly the managers of the utilities on the effectiveness of the measures implemented. We found that all areas studied have implemented pricing and non-pricing measures to encourage the efficient use of water and that reduction in per capita water consumption has been the result of periods of drought, accompanied in certain cases by water restrictions and pricing and non-pricing measures. In all five areas studied, the utilities believe that non-pricing measures have had a greater impact on water consumption decisions compared to pricing measures.

Barcelona / A tale of two rivers

In Barcelona, the connection between the city and its natural environment is very clear in multiple images linking the mountains to the sea. However, what is much less perceived, is the presence, and importance, of the two major rivers entrapping the city on either side. The Besòs and Llobregat rivers have long played a crucial role in the development of the city, not only for their historic importance during the industrialization period, but also for their presence as green axis, much needed for citizens, as well as for urban renewal. Today both rivers contribute to generate vast green spaces at metropolitan level. Throughout this article, we will focus on the transformation of these two rivers over the last thirty years and will examine their situation before human intervention, projects and implementations took place. Undoubtedly, the renovation of these spaces into a green belt for the metropolitan area of Barcelona have strengthened the relationship between natural spaces and urban infrastructure. Furthermore, their recovery vindicated the identity of the surrounding areas, which have always been related to water.

Multi-method assessment of the intrinsic biodegradation potential of an aquifer contaminated with chlorinated ethenes at an industrial area in Barcelona (Spain)

The bioremediation potential of an aquifer contaminated with tetrachloroethene (PCE) was assessed by combining hydrogeochemical data of the site, microcosm studies, metabolites concentrations, compound specific-stable carbon isotope analysis and the identification of selected reductive dechlorination biomarker genes. The characterization of the site through 10 monitoring wells evidenced that leaked PCE was transformed to TCE and cis-DCE via hydrogenolysis. Carbon isotopic mass balance of chlorinated ethenes pointed to two distinct sources of contamination and discarded relevant alternate degradation pathways in the aquifer. Application of specific-genus primers targeting Dehalococcoides mccartyi species and the vinyl chloride-to-ethene reductive dehalogenase vcrA indicated the presence of autochthonous bacteria capable of the complete dechlorination of PCE. The observed cis-DCE stall was consistent with the aquifer geochemistry (positive redox potentials; presence of dissolved oxygen, nitrate, and sulphate; absence of ferrous iron), which was thermodynamically favourable to dechlorinate highly chlorinated ethenes but required lower redox potentials to evolve beyond cis-DCE to the innocuous end product ethene. Accordingly, the addition of lactate or a mixture of ethanol plus methanol as electron donor sources in parallel field-derived anoxic microcosms accelerated dechlorination of PCE and passed cis-DCE up to ethene, unlike the controls (without amendments, representative of field natural attenuation). Lactate fermentation produced acetate at near-stoichiometric amounts. The array of techniques used in this study provided complementary lines of evidence to suggest that enhanced anaerobic bioremediation using lactate as electron donor source is a feasible strategy to successfully decontaminate this site.

Elecciones reproductivas, anonimato y parentesco: discursos e implicaciones para las "madres solteras por decisión"

El anonimato o no anonimato en las donaciones de gametos está siendo foco de debates en el ámbito internacional, avanzando las posiciones más favorables a su levantamiento. En el caso de España, la ley prescribe aún el anonimato. En este contexto de debates en torno anonimato/no-anonimato, este artículo analiza las estrategias reproductivas de las madres solteras por elección —mujeres que deciden ser madres al margen del esquema de pareja y de familia hetero-biparental— atendiendo tanto al recurso a donantes conocidos y/o anónimos como a las estrategias, apropiaciones y resignificaciones del anonimato. La base empírica del artículo está constituida por entrevistas en profundidad a 27 mujeres en diferentes momentos del proceso de convertirse en madres con donante, así como en observación participante en diversos espacios de encuentro (tanto on line como presenciales) en el área de Barcelona. El trabajo sostiene que el anonimato se resignifica como una práctica de cuidado hacia los hijos/as, protegiéndoles frente a la figura del padre ausente y asegurando la autonomía del proyecto familiar. Asimismo, se analizan las lógicas androcéntricas implícitas en la consideración de estas estrategias reproductivas como individualistas, sosteniendo que se trata de reformulaciones de la estigmatización de las madres solteras en las sociedades patriarcales y, por extensión, sanciones a la autonomía reproductiva de las mujeres que eluden que la responsabilidad social de la crianza acaba —de nuevo— concentrada en la figura de la madre.

Estimating long-term socioeconomic inequality in southern Europe: The Barcelona area, 1481–1880

This article estimates the patterns of socioeconomic inequality in the Barcelona area during the period 1481–1880 using the Marriage License Books from the Diocese of Barcelona, a unique fiscal source that ranged society from nobility, the highest level of payment, to the poor, exempted from taxation. These taxes together with the social status information of each individual allow setting fiscal progressivity and an approach to human capital. The results show how the levels of inequality were higher in preindustrial periods. However, industrialization with a deskilling occupational process and the emergence of a new working class reinforced the socioeconomic disparity due to the effects of proletarianization.

Macro-brothels as crime attractors: Impact of closure, displacement, and diffusion of benefits

Efforts made at preventing prostitution – and any associated crime and disorder – are sometimes undermined by assumptions the problem will likely displace elsewhere. This study measures changes in local crime rates following the closure of two macro-brothels in Castelldefels, a town in the greater metropolitan area of Barcelona, Spain. The closures were complemented by a local ordinance aimed at preventing spatial displacement. Weighted displacement quotients indicated that the modest crime reductions observed in the treatment area (immediately around the macro-brothels) did not displace to the buffer area (the rest of the town); instead, a diffusion of benefits was observed, whereby crime reductions were also observed in the buffer area. The implications of the findings for criminological theory, policy and practice are discussed.

Differential occurrence, profiles and uptake of dust contaminants in the Barcelona urban area

Dust is a complex but increasingly used matrix to assess human exposure to organic contaminants both in indoor and outdoor environments. Knowledge concerning the effects of organic pollution towards health outcome is crucial. This study is aimed to determine the presence of legacy compounds (DDTs and polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs), compounds used in recent times (organophosphorous flame retardants, organophosphorous pesticides, BPA, phthalates and alkylphenols) and compounds originated from combustion processes (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs) as well as nicotine in indoor environments along the metropolitan area of Barcelona. Monitored sites include public areas with high turnout (high schools, museums samples) and libraries and private spaces (houses and cars). Almost all compounds (57 over the 59 targeted) were found in each dust sample and libraries and schools were the most contaminated, with concentrations of ∑phthalates and ∑OPFRs up to 15 and 10 mg g−1, respectively. One-way ANOVA tests, Tukey contrasts and principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that sampling place influenced the observed contamination profiles and public and private environments were clearly differentiated. Finally, based on the concentrations detected, a deterministic calculation was performed to estimate the total daily intakes of each compound via dust. This information was used to evaluate the human exposure for toddlers, teenagers and adult workers. Consistently, the highest concentrations coming from plasticisers and flame retardants gave the major exposure rates. As expected, toddlers were the most affected group followed by museum and library workers, although the levels were below the reference doses.