Areas Of Southern Africa Research Articles

The Common Monetary Area in Southern Africa: Shocks, Adjustment, and Policy Challenges

This study assesses the experience of the Common Monetary Area (CMA) based on available empirical evidence over the last two decades. It pays particular attention to member countries' adjustment to economic shocks in recent years and the inter-country linkages, including the spillover effects of policies. The paper draws the main lessons from the CMA experience, identifies key policy challenges, and discusses the issues facing the member countries in their efforts to achieve sustained growth. Implications for further economic integration in a broader regional context are also noted.

IMPACTS OF LEAF HARVESTING AND SAP TAPPING ON THE IVORY PALM (HYPHAENE PETERSIANA) IN SOUTH EASTERN ZIMBABWE

ABSTRACT People living in the marginal areas of Southern Africa have relied on palm resources for subsistence for centuries and yet little is known about the impacts of their harvesting activities. This work aimed at providing data on the impacts of two forms of traditional exploitation, leaf harvesting and sap tapping on the palm, Hyphaene petersiana. Three experiments were carried out in southeastern Zimbabwe • leaf harvesting to evaluate its impacts on new leaf production and the availability of harvestable material, • sap tapping to assess amounts produced, and • evaluating the regeneration potential of tapped ramets. Findings from this research were that: ∘ leaf harvesting reduced new leaf production, growth and the availability of harvestable material; ∘ sap tapping did not necessarily kill the palm but the extent of meristem removal determined the likelihood and mode of regeneration. We conclude that leaf harvesting and sap tapping activities influence the subsequent development of the palm Hyphaene petersiana and that efforts should be made to adopt harvesting and tapping strategies that will ensure reliable raw material supply for the craft industry which is sustaining many lives in Southern Africa.

The potential and pitfalls of global environmental governance: The politics of transfrontier conservation areas in Southern Africa

This article examines the potential and problems associated with global environmental governance with particular reference to Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) in Southern Africa. By taking a political ecology approach, it reflects on theories and practices of global environmental governance through an analysis of transboundary environmental management. In particular, it examines the politics of the struggle over control of and access to key natural resources and how it impacts on the implementation of transfrontier conservation. In order to do this, this article includes an analysis of the complex role of local and global NGOs, the changing role of the state in relation to international actors, the importance of community based natural resource management, the commitment to tourism to make conservation pay its way and the problems associated with illicit networks of traffickers of wildlife products, cars and people. It is important to investigate the politics of TFCAs because they are part of a wider context of increasing forms of transnational management of the environment; such transnational forms of management are often deemed to be more effective than national level management because of the transboundary nature of environmental problems. This article argues that the assumption that transnational management can be neatly implemented needs rethinking. In particular, it highlights the ways that complex networks of actors constitute a significant challenge to global environmental governance. This in turn raises more general questions about the effectiveness of other forms of global environmental governance centred on managing problems such as climate change, pollution or trafficking of endangered species and tropical hardwoods.

Nitric oxide synthase and cytokines gene expression analyses in Leishmania-infected RAW 264.7 cells treated with an extract of Pelargonium sidoides (Eps® 7630)

A modern aqueous-ethanolic formulation of the roots of Pelargonium sidoides (Eps 7630), elaborated from the traditional herbal medicine used in areas of southern Africa, is effectively employed for the treatment of ENT and respiratory tract infections in modern phytotherapy. Previous studies have demonstrated antibacterial and immunomodulatory activities. To gain insight into the mode of action at the molecular level, gene expression analyses for the inducible nitric oxide synthase and the cytokines interleukin (IL)-1, IL-12, IL-18, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interferon (IFN)-alpha, and IFN-gamma, were performed using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The experiments were carried out in parallel in non-infected and in Leishmania major-infected RAW 264.7 cells and the expression profiles were compared with those mediated by IFN-gamma+LPS. Eps 7630 induced low mRNA levels in non-infected cells, and it considerably up-regulated the transcript expressions in parasitised cells. Interestingly, and in contrast to activation by IFN-gamma+LPS, Eps 7630 also stimulated infected cells to produce IFN-gamma mRNA. A similar expression profile was observed for the methanol-insoluble fraction (MIF) of Eps 7630 and gallic acid, a trace constituent of the extract, while the methanol-soluble fraction and umckalin, an exclusive and representative member of the occurring coumarins, proved to be devoid of any remarkable gene-inducing capabilities. The present results provide not only convincing support for the improvement of immune functions as previously demonstrated in functional bioassays, but also evidence for activation at the transcriptional level and suggest that the underlying inducing principle is located in the MIF.

Ehrlichia ruminantium, Sudan

To the Editor: Ehrlichia ruminantium, the causative agent of heartwater, is transmitted by Amblyomma spp. ticks. Amblyomma variegatum ticks, which are found in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa, except in certain areas of southern Africa, are major vectors of E. ruminantium (1–3). A. lepidum is also an important vector of heartwater, especially in eastern Sudan (4). However, few epidemiologic data exist on infection rates of Amblyomma spp. ticks and distribution of E. ruminantium in Sudan. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay that uses DNA probe pCS20 has been developed for detecting E. ruminantium (5). Another PCR assay for the major antigen protein 1 gene (map1) has been used to differentiate strains of E. ruminantium (6,7). These PCR assays have high sensitivity and specificity for the amplification of E. ruminantium DNA (6,8). For epidemiologic study of E. ruminantium in Sudan, we used PCR to detect E. ruminantium DNA in ticks. We also sequenced PCR products to identify the genotype of E. ruminantium. The pCS20 DNA fragment of E. ruminantium was detected in 8 (8.2%) of 97 A. variegatum ticks and 2 (1.9%) of 106 A. lepidum ticks (χ2= 3.123, by Yates correction). The nucleotide sequences (279 bp) obtained from 5 A. variegatum ticks and 1 A. lepidum tick were identical (GenBank accession no. {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AB218277,term_id:78126078}}AB218277). The sequences were similar to those of Welgevonden, Vosloo, and Ball3 strains from southern Africa and Gardel strain from the Caribbean islands (similarity = 99.64%). The pCS20 sequences obtained in this study were different from those of strains from western Africa. An 855-bp map1 nucleotide sequence obtained from 1 A. lepidum tick was provisionally named Gedaref (GenBank accession no. {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AB218278,term_id:78126080}}AB218278). The nucleotide sequence of Gedaref was found to be closely related to those of Senegal and Pokoase strains from western Africa and to South Africa Canine and Kumm1 strains from southern Africa (similarity = 90.53%–97.43%). Gedaref clustered with these 4 strains and with 6 other strains, including Kiswani from eastern Africa and Antigua from the Caribbean islands (Figure). In contrast, the nucleotide sequence of Gedaref showed 84.8% similarity with that of Um Banein, which has been known as the only strain of E. ruminantium in Sudan. Um Banein formed another cluster with Gardel, Lutale, and Umpala strains from southern Africa (Figure). The map1 coding sequence of Gedaref was closely related to those of strains Senegal, Ball3, South Africa Canine, and Pokoase (similarity = 92.61%–97.97%). Gedaref and these 4 strains formed a cluster and branch with Um Banein (similarity = 87.6%). Figure Neighbor-joining phylogram based on map1 nucleotide sequences of Ehrlichia ruminantium strains. Ninety-seven Amblyomma variegatum ticks were obtained from cattle in the suburbs of Juba in southern Sudan, and 106 A. lepidum ticks were obtained from camels ... The novel E. ruminantium genotype Gedaref was detected in A. lepidum by PCR assays. This work has shown that another strain of E. ruminantium, in addition to the Um Banein strain, is present in Sudan. Since the Um Banein strain of E. ruminantium was isolated from sheep in 1984 (4), no other strain had been reported in Sudan. The map1 sequence of Gedaref has diverged from that of Um Banein. Gedaref formed a cluster with several strains that originated in southern and western Africa. As previously reported, the variation of map1 sequences of E. ruminantium strains does not reflect the geographic distribution of the strains (6). However, Gedaref was distinctively differentiated from the Um Banein strain. Gedaref was closely related to 3 southern African strains and a Caribbean strain in the pCS20 sequence but different from western African strains. The pCS20 sequence has been highly conserved among strains from western Africa (10), and the distribution of A. lepidum is limited to eastern Africa (3). If one considers the distribution of A. lepidum, results of genetic analyses in the pCS20 gene regions of Gedaref are important for epidemiologic research on E. ruminantium. We detected pCS20 DNA specific for E. ruminantium in A. variegatum. This tick is widely distributed in Africa and is the most efficient vector of heartwater (3). Nevertheless, detection of E. ruminantium in A. variegatum in Sudan had not previously been reported. Our results show that A. variegatum is also an important vector of E. ruminantium in Sudan. A. variegatum ticks are also found North and South America, Southeast Asia, and Australia (3). Thus, the potential spread of E. ruminantium to livestock is a continuous threat in these regions from the importation of tick-infested and subclinically infected wild animals from Africa and the importation of livestock from Caribbean islands (1,2). We believe that A. variegatum plays an important role in the spread of heartwater because of its ability to adapt to various environments.

Place, belonging and population displacement: new ecological reserves in Mozambique and South Africa

This paper investigates the effect the proclamation of conserved areas in southern Africa may have on the ability of inhabitants in these areas to retain control of ancestral territory and to access long-standing livelihood options in the future. In particular, it examines how two national parks (in South Africa and Mozambique) effect a change in ownership and land use, and the resulting impact of such a change on local socio-cultural patterns of identity, or ‘place’. This is achieved by examining the dilemma confronting social and ecological scientists in planning these parks – where interventionist policies often deny customary tenure of land and thus prevent a thorough understanding of any historical claims to land prior to actual proclamation of the area. Accordingly, this paper argues for greater cooperation between social and ecological researchers in order to prevent the politicisation of national reserves and the intense opposition that has accompanied most instances of population displacement in the subcontinent.

SUCCULENTSfor most gardens

O f course there are scores of mesembryanthemums that can be grown out of doors in areas without frost or where frosts are irregular. Here I wish to pass on information about plants that are fully hardy in Zone 6 and could probably cope with colder areas if introduced in stages. Mesembrianthemums are almost exclusively African, but some higher areas of southern Africa have harsh winters with snow, ice and rain. From these regions there are a number of genera, and more than a dozen species, that are fully hardy in Scotland.

The Monetary Geography of Africa

Africa is working toward the goal of creating a common currency that would serve as a symbol of African unity. The advantages of a common currency include lower transaction costs, increased stability, and greater insulation of central banks from pressures to provide monetary financing. Disadvantages relate to asymmetries among countries, especially in their terms of trade and in the degree of fiscal discipline. More disciplined countries will not want to form a union with countries whose excessive spending puts upward pressure on the central bank's monetary expansion. In The Monetary Geography of Africa , Paul Masson and Catherine Pattillo review the history of monetary arrangements on the continent and analyze the current situation and prospects for further integration. They apply lessons from both experience and theory that lead to a number of conclusions. To begin with, West Africa faces a major problem because Nigeria has both asymmetric terms of trade --it is a large oil exporter while its potential partners are oil importers --and most important, large fiscal imbalances. Secondly, a monetary union among all eastern or southern African countries seems infeasible at this stage, since a number of countries suffer from the effects of civil conflicts and drought and are far from achieving the macroeconomic stability of South Africa. Lastly, the plan by Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda to create a common currency seems to be generally compatible with other initiatives that could contribute to greater regional solidarity. However, economic gains would likely favor Kenya, which, unlike the other two countries, has substantial exports to its neighbors, and this may constrain the political will needed to proceed. A more promising strategy for monetary integration would be to build on existing monetary unions --the CFA franc zone in western and central Africa and the Common Monetary Area in southern Africa. Masson and Pattillo argue that the goal of a creating a single African currency is probably beyond reach. Economic realities suggest that grand new projects for African monetary unions are unlikely to be successful. More important for Africa's economic well-being will be to attack the more fundamental problems of corruption and governance.

African dreams of cohesion: elite pacting and community development in transfrontier conservation areas in southern Africa

In this paper we argue that there is a paradox in the managerial attempt of the South African Peace Park Foundation, to foster cohesion within the development of Trans Frontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) in southern Africa by focusing on community participation and development. Cohesion is mainly found at the level of the elite – both European and African – promoting the idea of the TFCAs, which provides them with opportunities to develop ‘Super‐African’ identities, based on identifying with nature and the landscape rather than the nation‐state. The imagery about the African landscape on which this process is based has its roots in colonial and primitivist discourse on Africa and Africans which includes Africans in the concept of landscape, but only if apparently unadulterated by modernity. This ultimately presents a problem for the TFCA development and its aim to develop local communities: if local people would indeed economically develop, with all the material consequences, they would no longer belong in the inclusive European aesthetics of the African landscape.

An Assessment Of The Costs, Benefits And Optimality Of The Common Monetary Area In Southern Africa

In this paper we aim to answer the following two questions: 1) has the Common Monetary Area in Southern Africa (CMA) been an optimal currency area (OCA)Π2) What are the costs and benefits of the CMA for its participating countriesΠTo answer these questions, we carry out a two-step econometric exercise based on the theory of generalised purchasing power parity (G-PPP). The first exercise tests whether the CMA (but also Botswana as a de facto member) forms an OCA by detecting the existence of common long-run trends in their bilateral real exchange rates. The second exercise identifies the determinants of deviations from G-PPP in the CMA as measured through the degree of pairwise price correlation. These determinants stand for the costs and benefits of joining a monetary union, namely the degree of trade openness, the degree of production diversification (and the interaction between these two), the synchronicity of business cycles and the kind of gross capital inflows received by the member countries.

An investigation into natural resistance to African swine fever in domestic pigs from an endemic area in southern Africa

A population of domestic pigs in northern Mozambique with increased resistance to the pathogenic effects of African swine fever (ASF) virus was identified by the high prevalence of circulating antibodies to ASF virus. An attempt was made to establish whether the resistance in this population was heritable. Some of these pigs were acquired and transported to a quarantine facility and allowed to breed naturally. Offspring of the resistant pigs were transferred to a high security facility where they were challenged with two ASF viruses, one of which was isolated from one of the Mozambican pigs and the other a genetically closely-related virus from Madagascar. All but one of the 105 offspring challenged developed acute ASF and died. It therefore appears that the resistance demonstrated by these pigs is not inherited by their offspring, or could not be expressed under the conditions of the experiment. The question remains therefore as to the mechanism whereby pigs in the population from which the experimental pigs were derived co-existed with virulent ASF viruses.

Opioid substitution and HIV/AIDS treatment and prevention

The HIV/AIDS epidemic remains a global crisis affecting millions of lives as well as the development of many countries throughout the world. About 40 million people are infected with HIV with an estimated 5 million people infected during 2003. In many of the regions with the fastest growing HIV epidemics such as parts of Asia eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union injection drug users (IDUs) and their sexual contacts account for most new infections. Opioid dependence is the underlying condition fueling the HIV epidemic in many countries. The development of new antiretroviral treatments improved the care of HIV-infected persons although the anticipated benefits have been eroded by poor access to in areas hardest hit by the epidemic. While access has been particularly poor in those areas of southern Africa where HIV prevalence is highest in many regions with large IDU-driven HIV epidemics access to antiretrovirals is also exceedingly low. (excerpt)

Early growth and survival ofAcacia galpiniiafter planting in a semi-arid environment in Zimbabwe

Synopsis Acacia galpinii grows naturally on the riverbanks and smaller drainage lines in semi-arid areas ofSouthern Africa. Trial planting of the species as a decorative tree commenced in 1993 along urban roads in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. Early growth and survival of the species after planting was investigated in order to assess its suitability for afforestation in semi-arid environments. Growth and survival of trees were measured 3 to 9 years after planting. A significant positive correlation between crown height and stem diameter was observed in all the trial plantings. Growth rate was fast with trees reaching a mean diameter oflO em and height of3 mover 3 years and a diameter of 16 em and height of 5 mover 9 years. Such growth rates were reached under frequent drought conditions. Average stem height growth was 0.6 m year-1 and diameter growth (at 30 em above ground) was 2 em year-1. Survival of A. galpinii was more than 86 percent. Foliage transparency was in excess of 80% for all age groups while crown die back and stem damage was below 5%. A. galpinii was found to be suitable for dry-zone afforestation.

Biomass estimation using Landsat-TM and -ETM+. Towards a regional model for Southern Africa?

Grazing and fire are major factors influencing the savanna ecosystems of Southern Africa. In both grazing and conservation areas overgrazing is an important reason for degradation of vegetation and soil. Insufficient fire management can cause a change in the species composition and may influence the soil negatively. For adequate planning purposes the knowledge of available biomass is indispensable. High-resolution satellite systems can provide such knowledge on a large scale. Three study areas in Southern Africa contributed to a first survey. Gutu District is situated in Zimbabwe. In its Communal Lands a high population density leads to severe degradation of vegetation and soil. The South African test sites are located in Kruger National Park and Madikwe Game Reserve. Therefore a wide ecological range from highly degraded to slightly disturbed savanna ecosystems is included. Satellite images of both Landsat-5 (TM) and Landsat-7 (ETM+) were applied. After cross-calibration of the two different satellite systems, indices applied to radiance and reflectance showed significant correlations with ground truth data of grass and other foliage biomass. Including new data from Hluhluwe National Park (South Africa) into the regression models improved the results, indicating that a regional model for savanna ecosystems in Southern Africa could be found.

The distributions of the genera of pollen wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Masarinae) in the semi-arid to arid areas of southern Africa in relation to their requirements for successful nesting

The knowledge of the distributions, ecology and natural history of the pollen wasps (Vespidae: Masarinae) of the world has been reviewed (Gess, 1996). For the semi-arid to arid areas of southern Africa, the area with the highest species diversity of pollen wasps, the present contribution presents updated distributions of the genera and examines these in relation to the requirements for successful nesting. It shows that: the widespread, ground nesting genus Ceramius Latreille and the recently discovered Namibian ground nesting genus Priscomasaris Gess, the basal member of the Masarini, both of which require water and stable soil with a relatively high clay element for nesting, do not penetrate the true desert; the ground nesting genus Masarina Richards, with a southwestern distribution, has water dependant species but also, at least, one species which uses nectar instead of water, and, at least, one species which penetrates the desert in southern Namibia; the closely related widespread genus Jugurtia de Saussure, of which many species require water and stable soil with a relatively high clay element, may also have species which use nectar instead of water as there are two species which penetrate the desert, one in the south and one in the north of Namibia; the widespread genus Celonites Latreille, with species nesting in or above the ground on plants or stones and using nectar as a bonding agent, penetrates the desert along drainage channels; and the widespread, ground nesting genus Quartinia Ed. André, the most species diverse and smallest in size has many species which are truly successful desert dwellers. It is suggested that the reasons for the success of Quartinia species as desert dwellers are that: their small size enables them to reproduce successfully with minimal resources of provision; their remarkable ability as adults to produce self generated silk frees them from dependence on water or nectar as bonding agents in nest construction and enables them to nest in sand in nature such that it cannot be cemented with water or nectar; in windswept areas they are able to nest in small pockets of stable sand such as that trapped in snail shells; they are able to fly and forage in gale force winds; and they are able to fly at extremes of temperature, both high and low.

‘Where is the life in farming?’: The viability of smallholder farming on the margins of the Kalahari, Southern Africa

This paper investigates the ways in which national and regional policies relate to farming activities and concerns amongst the rural population in an area of southern Africa. The struggle to make a living through farming was a common theme to emerge from research about changing livelihoods in response to both variability in the environment and changes in policy. This local discourse echoed regional debates about land and agrarian reform in post-apartheid South Africa and the uncertain future of mixed farming in Botswana. It also raised broader questions about the viability of the future of small–medium-scale farming systems in rural areas in Africa, especially those within dynamic dryland environments such as the Kalahari. This paper looks specifically at the links between poverty and asset holding and aims to identify the ways in which people are or are not able to utilise or mobilise these assets in times of need. We argue that this can vary significantly between seemingly similar settlements, and similar households and that understanding this complexity is the key to recognising how future interventions many impact upon people’s lives. Too often, in the quest to produce understandings of poverty and livelihoods, the complexity, incongruity and reality of day-to-day practices are overlooked. Thus we seek to draw out the interactions between policy and natural resource use, and the capital asset changes involved in these interactions, which influence the sustainability of livelihoods and the differing levels of poverty and vulnerability.

Distribution of veld rat sibling species Aethomys chrysophilus and Aethomys ineptus (Rodentia: Muridae) in southern Africa

Sibling species Aethomys chrysophilus (de Winton) and Aethomys ineptus Thomas and Wroughton are indistinguishable in external morphology. Although their combined geographic range extends over a large area of southern Africa, their respective distributions are uncertain. We have assembled a database that includes all known positively identified specimens from the literature, as well as those recently collected by the authors in South Africa. Based on these specimens, we suggest that A. chrysophilus occupies most of the combined range, reaching its southern limit in northern South Africa, primarily in low elevations of the Limpopo River drainage. The remainder of South Africa is occupied by A. ineptus, which occurs at higher elevations in north central South Africa but expands into lower elevation habitats in the southern portion of its range. Although mostly parapatric, their ranges are known to overlap west of Pretoria (Magaliesberg region of North West Province) and west of the Soutpansberg in Limpopo Province. However, they are known with certainty to be syntopic at only one locality (Langjan Nature Reserve, Limpopo Province). Further research is needed to determine the zone of parapatry in Mozambique, Botswana and Namibia.

Pharmacological profile of extracts of Pelargonium sidoides and their constituents.

In areas of southern Africa, aqueous extracts from the roots of Pelargonium sidoides are employed to cure various disorders. Nowadays, a modern formulation (EPs 7630), elaborated from the traditional herbal medicine, is successfully used for the treatment of respiratory tract diseases. We previously observed that root extracts of P. sidoides and their representative constituents exhibit moderate antibacterial and significant immunomodulatory capabilities. The present study was performed to further assess the efficacy and mode of action for these pharmacological activities. The results indicate that P. sidoides extracts may well possess antimycobacterial activity as claimed in traditional uses. Furthermore, significant antibacterial properties against multi-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains as well as TNF-inducing potencies and prominent interferon-like activities in supernatants of sample-activated bone marrow-derived macrophages were observed using several functional assays. In addition, EPs 7630 stimulated the synthesis of IFN-beta in MG 63 cells as demonstrated by a specific enzyme immunoassay. For gallic acid, a characteristic constituent, evidence for the expression of iNOS and TNF-alpha transcripts in stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and, hence, activation at the transcriptional level was revealed by RT-PCR. The present results, when taken together with the recently reported pharmacological activities, provide for a rationale basis of the utilization of EPs 7630 in the treatment of respiratory tract infections.

National sovereignty & transboundary protected areas in Southern Africa

The notion that Transboundary Protected Areas (TBPAs) will act as `Peace Parks' has become an important argument in their promotion in post-Apartheid Southern Africa. This `Peace Parks Concept' is implicitly based upon the assumption that national sovereignty will not become a constraining factor in the creation and management of TBPAs. However, this assumption is problematic. TBPAs introduce various changes in the landscape with consequences for the ways in which a state can exercise its sovereignty over its borderland and citizens. This situation might evoke state action that could endanger the various environmental, socio-economic and political objectives of TBPAs. A state's behaviour with regard to TBPAs is not just informed by its interests in TBPAs, but also by its strategic and other interests in the wider borderland area. These are not necessarily compatible with the environmental and economic objectives of TBPAs. The ways in which these interests are mediated are highly complex and non-linear. Because of the inter-dependency that TBPAs create, the extent to which a state can pursue certain interests by means of TBPAs will be (partially) constrained by the wishes of the other states involved. In addition, power has to be shared with a wide range of non-state actors. The operation of sovereignty in TBPAs is therefore highly unpredictable and cannot be captured in static zero-sum terms. Actor Network Theory is identified as a possible starting-point to unravel and evaluate these complex political processes in TBPAs and their subsequent outcomes for state sovereignty.

'Infertility Makes You Invisible': Gender, Health and the Negotiation of Fertility in Northern Botswana

Contemporary demographic discourse and population policies in southern Africa tend to focus upon the positive value of low, and ever lowering, total fertility rates. In Botswana, statistics suggest a high rate of extramarital fertility and a rapidly increasing HIV infection rate. While these represent visible problems for demographers and policy makers, infertility ‐ a significant problem for many Batswana ‐ remains 'invisible' in much of demographic discourse. This paper suggests that while infertility may be an invisible demographic variable, it is particularly significant in the lives of the people of northern Botswana and it can be a useful lens through which to view cultural constructions of gender and health. For many women in Botswana, infertility, the apparent inability to bear children, is a serious social and physiological concern and one that is intricately tied to local perceptions of contraceptives and witchcraft, for example. In addition, with large scale migration by men to other areas of southern Africa, women find themselves confronted with various economic concerns and the necessity to negotiate childbearing in that context. It is argued that a more social and ethnographic understanding of the importance of fertility can lead to a better understanding of why some population policies are not particularly efficacious. This paper is based upon ethnographic fieldwork in northern Botswana and represents an attempt to synthesise anthropological and demographic approaches to the concept of fertility by examining the often overlooked variable of infertility.