Areas In Ghana Research Articles

Optimal techno-economic potential and site evaluation for solar PV and CSP systems in Ghana. A geospatial AHP multi-criteria approach

In this study, the techno-economic potential and site suitability for utility-scale solar PV and CSP technologies have been estimated for Ghana. The overarching goal is to increase visibility of solar energy potentials to encourage and facilitate the uptake of renewable energy towards the global decarbonisation agenda as well as to expand energy access in the country. To assist policymakers in Ghana towards this agenda including potential areas for investment, the geographical, technical, and economic potentials for the two solar energy technology solutions have been assessed. In this study unlike many other studies, the AHP and Weighted Sum Average approaches have been applied in the ArcGIS Pro environment to estimate the two technology potentials at the national and regional levels. This combined approach is still in its infantry stages and thus contributes to a new body of knowledge from the international perspective in addition to its applicability at specific country level like Ghana. Results from the analysis show varying generation capacities for the selected solar energy technologies. Geographically, about 85% of total land area in Ghana is suitable for solar energy deployment. At the national level, a generation capacity of ∼68,622 TWh/year can be harnessed from utility-scale PV and ∼23,452 TWh/year from CSP systems. The LCOE for the utility-scale solar PV technology ranges from a minimum of about $0.04/kWh to a maximum of $0.15/kWh, and from ∼$0.73/kWh to ∼$2.89/kWh for the CSP technology in Ghana.

Spatiotemporal distribution and insecticide resistance status of Aedes aegypti in Ghana

BackgroundVector control is the main intervention used to control arboviral diseases transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes because there are no effective vaccines or treatments for most of them. Control of Aedes mosquitoes relies heavily on the use of insecticides, the effectiveness of which may be impacted by resistance. In addition, rational insecticide application requires detailed knowledge of vector distribution, dynamics, resting, and feeding behaviours, which are poorly understood for Aedes mosquitoes in Africa. This study investigated the spatiotemporal distribution and insecticide resistance status of Aedes aegypti across ecological extremes of Ghana.MethodsImmature mosquitoes were sampled from containers in and around human dwellings at seven study sites in urban, suburban, and rural areas of Ghana. Adult Aedes mosquitoes were sampled indoors and outdoors using Biogents BG-Sentinel 2 mosquito traps, human landing catches, and Prokopack aspiration. Distributions of immature and adult Aedes mosquitoes were determined indoors and outdoors during dry and rainy seasons at all sites. The phenotypic resistance status of Aedes mosquitoes to insecticides was determined using World Health Organization susceptibility bioassays. The host blood meal source was determined by polymerase chain reaction.ResultsA total of 16,711 immature Aedes were sampled, with over 70% found in car tyres. Significantly more breeding containers had Aedes immatures during the rainy season (11,856; 70.95%) compared to the dry season (4855; 29.05%). A total of 1895 adult Aedes mosquitos were collected, including Aedes aegypti (97.8%), Aedes africanus (2.1%) and Aedesluteocephalus (0.1%). Indoor sampling of adult Aedes yielded a total of 381 (20.1%) and outdoor sampling a total of 1514 (79.9%) mosquitoes (z = − 5.427, P = 0.0000) over the entire sampling period. Aedes aegypti populations were resistant to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane at all study sites. Vectors showed suspected resistance to bendiocarb (96–97%), permethrin (90–96%) and deltamethrin (91–96%), and were susceptible to the organophosphate for all study sites. Blood meal analysis showed that the Aedes mosquitoes were mostly anthropophilic, with a human blood index of 0.9 (i.e. humans, 90%; human and dog, 5%; dog and cow, 5%).ConclusionsAedes mosquitoes were found at high densities in all ecological zones of Ghana. Resistance of Aedes spp. to pyrethroids and carbamates may limit the efficacy of vector control programmes and thus requires careful monitoring.Graphicalabstract

Individual and Community Level Factors Related to Sanitation, Water Quality, Treatment and Management in Rural Communities in Accra, Ghana: A Field Study Report

Access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation are basic necessities of life, yet not everyone in the world is able to access these services, particularly people living in rural areas. Rural areas in Ghana, defined as communities with populations less than 5,000 people, and some rural areas in the United States (US), defined as non-metropolitan communities, experience water and sanitation-related issues to varying degrees. The purpose of the field study was to examine individual and community level issues related to sanitation, and water sources, water quality, treatment and management, water needs and water-related illness in Accra, Ghana, and to determine areas of similarities and differences with the US. Thus, study results are not generalizable to the entire population of Ghana. Given the short duration of the entire field study (three weeks) and the fact that most information on water and sanitation in the US is publicly-available, secondary data from various sources were used for the US comparison. Results from the study showed that 61.4% of study participants in the selected communities in Accra and 80.0% of Americans living in rural areas had access to safe water. Lack of access to toilet facilities was minimal in rural communities in both Ghana and the US. Copyright © 2022 Willis et al. Published by Global Health and Education Projects, Inc. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0.

The public's perspectives of urban sustainability: A comparative analysis of two urban areas in Ghana

In response to ongoing rapid urbanisation in Ghana, research has emerged to improve understanding of the urbanisation process. However, empirical evidence on the interactions between urbanisation and sustainability from the perspective of the public in Africa is limited. This study, through a face-to-face survey, comparatively explores the perceptions and attitudes of the public in two urban areas (Kumasi and Obuasi) in Ghana towards dimensions representing urban sustainability. This is important for improving understanding of the impacts of urbanisation in the context of sustainability. The results confirm both similar and diverging perceptions that are held by the public in Kumasi and Obuasi based on their priorities, values, and diversity; and also, the results show that the perceptions of the public are mainly influenced by socio-economic considerations compared with environmental concerns. Furthermore, the results highlight how the public is likely to adopt pro-sustainability practices under the right conditions (e.g., well-resourced recycling schemes). Overall, this study provides authentic insights into urban sustainability in Ghana and by extension, Africa, based on the experiential knowledge of the public, and it highlights the exigency of sufficiently engaging urban residents and incorporating their values and preferences into sustainability policy-making and planning.

Gender-based participation in income generating activities in cocoa growing communities. The role of youth training programs

Despite an impressive growth of Ghana's economy over the decades, it has been branded as ‘jobless growth’ manifested in growing unemployment among the youth. This growing unemployment rate is gender biased against women, with the United Nations expecting this to worsen globally over time. This study examines the determinants of gender-based participation of the youth in income generating enterprises in cocoa growing areas in Ghana, using a sample of 4,702 participants of the Next Generation Cocoa Youth Program (MASO) initiative. This data were obtained by Solidaridad West Africa. The sample was obtained through the Propensity Score Matching (PSM) technique to compare the characteristics of the male and female groups and remove missing observations. The multinomial regression model supported with descriptive analysis were employed for the estimation. It was found that most of those who participated (63%) in the training program were engaged in an income generating activity. Youth engagement in cocoa (9%) as compared with non-cocoa (28%) and joint enterprise (26%) is very low. Given the same level of exposure (MASO), women are more likely to be unemployed, less likely to engage in cocoa production and more likely to be engaged in non-cocoa enterprises. All non-cocoa business enterprises are dominated by men except petty trading and agro processing. Age, marital status, education, savings, additional training, migrant status and gender, influenced engagements in the various categories of enterprises. The study recommends rolling out other policies that can address challenges of women engagement in cocoa farming in addition to the training program. Policies towards encouraging savings among the youth is recommended to aid in startup businesses, which may be supported by low interest loans. Attention should be given to the non-cocoa sector in terms of employment as people are either losing interest in cocoa farming or diversifying their incomes to non-cocoa businesses.

Peri-urban interface: An alternative residential location of low-income migrants in Kumasi, Ghana

While a plethora of studies have shown that slum settlements are the commonest choice of residence for low-income migrants in cities, little is known about the peri-urban landscape as host settlements for low-income migrants. This study aims to explore the context, motivation and outcomes of migrant settlements in peri-urban areas in Ghana. Using a qualitative approach through in-depth interviews, the findings suggest that low-income migrants opt for a rent-free stay in uncompleted houses in peri-urban areas. A major reason for this is the affordability challenge low-income migrants face in the rental housing market. Migrants choose to stay in uncompleted houses because they offer more space for both dwelling and storage. The unavailability of services such as electricity and potable water sometimes presented unique challenges for migrants, but this was also found to be a cost-saving mechanism. Employment prospects in peri-urban areas such as housing construction also contribute to the reason for migrant settlement in such areas.

Everyday politics of land use planning in peri-urbanisation

This paper compares everyday land administration systems and local planning practices involving traditional authorities and local statutory planning officials in the transformation of peri-urban areas in Ghana. First, it analyses the processes and conflicts in local plan preparation for peri-urban transformation. Second, it examines the power relations between traditional authorities and statutory planning officials in peri-urban land use planning. It uses a qualitative research design involving in-depth interviews and secondary data analysis, and a comparative case studies of Abuakwa and Adomako peri-urban communities in Ghanaian cities of Kumasi and Sunyani respectively. Findings show that conflicting rationalities and power relations between formal and customary land use planning are likely to occur when one stakeholder significantly overshadows the role of the other. In Abuakwa, the dominance of traditional authorities in land use planning has rendered statutory planning agencies ineffective. Similarly, the overemphasis on Lands Commission's role in land use planning activities in the Adomako case is producing conflicting rationalities both within and between statutory planning and traditional authorities. This paper argues that when roles are not defined in hybridized land use planning and management system, it is the peri-urban areas experiencing rapid transformation that suffer from haphazard, unplanned and non-inclusive development.

Assessing the effects of training on rice farmers’ yield. The case of JICA training on sustainable rain-fed lowland rice production technology in the Northern, Savanna and North-east Regions in Ghana

The consumption of rice has increased at an increasing rate globally with greater number of consumers deriving high calories through rice, hence the need for training of rice farmers to help increase its production to meet such high demand. This notion informed Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to collaborate with Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) and Government of Ghana (GoG) to train rice farmers in Ghana specifically in the Northern, Savana and North-east Regions. The ‘rain-fed lowland rice production technology training’, which was intended to increase rice production and profitability of rice farmers in the selected regions was carried out successfully within the project time frame. This study sought to evaluate the success of the training along two key objectives - ascertaining the extent to which the training has contributed to increase in rice yield (per hectare) of farmers in the selected areas and assessing the correlation between the components (land development and rice cultivation) of the training project on rice yield in the selected areas. The findings revealed the there was increase in rice farmers yield per hectare after the training and there was also a positive correlation between land development as a component of the training and rice cultivation in the selected area. The research recommend that MoFA should endeavour to replicate the JICA training on rain-fed lowland rice production technology across all rice production areas in Ghana.

Understanding NO2 Concentration Dynamics within Tema Metropolitan Area of Ghana Using Generalized Linear Model

The concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is worsening across the globe alongside growth in industrial and general anthropogenic activities. Due to its serious health implications with long-term exposure, studies on NO2 concentration have gained space in the academic literature. In this study, awareness is created on the levels of NO2 across four (4) locations within the Tema Metropolitan area, with specific interest in selecting locations and periods significantly saturated with NO2 within the study area. NO2 was measured using RKI Eagle, an instrument with a built-in sensor for a specific gas measurement. Measurements were taken day and night at sampling points around 100 meters apart in each location. Data collection was performed over a nine (9)-month period. The Generalized Linear model is explored for selecting locations and periods significantly affected by NO2. From the results, the fourth week (26th–31st) of July 2020, the fourth week (27th–31st) of December 2020, the first week (1st–7th) of January 2021, and the fourth week (24th–31st) of January 2021 recorded severe concentrations of NO2. Additionally, the lives of residents in the Oil Jetty and the VALVO hospital areas were found to be the most endangered, as they recorded significantly high concentrations of NO2. In a developing country such as Ghana, this study is useful for monitoring NO2 concentrations in similar areas to inform decision making and environmental policy formulation.

Natural regeneration in logging gaps of different sizes in Subri River Forest Reserve (Ghana)

Subri River Forest Reserve (SR) is the most extensive forest area in Ghana with an accompanying rich floral species. Over the years, logging from both legally prescribed and illegal operations remain the predominant forest disturbance in SR. Gap creation following logging is crucial in determining tree species composition and diversity. Hence, the study evaluated the composition and diversity of naturally regenerated tree species in logging gaps of different sizes and, again examined the roles of these tree species in fulfilling the economic and ecological agenda of sustainable forest management after logging in SR. Twelve gaps were randomly selected: 4 each were grouped into small size (≤ 200 m2), medium size (201–300 m2), and large size (≥ 300 m2). Data were gathered from 1 m2 circular area at gap centres and repeatedly inside 1 m width strip along 20 m individual N-S-E-W transects. Species diversity differed significantly between gap sizes. Higher diversity indices were measured in large size gaps. Gap sizes shared similar species. There were significant differences among various height groupings of tree species across all three gap sizes. Pioneers preferred medium to large size gaps, while shade-tolerant tree species preferred small size gaps for their abundance. Vulnerable and Lower Risk Near Threatened tree species under Conservation Status and, Premium and Commercial tree species under Utilisation Status preferred small size gaps for their proliferation and conservation. Therefore, we recommend the single tree-based selective logging for ensuring creations of small to medium size (200–300 m2) gaps through adjustments to the logging permit process, revision of Allocation Quota Permit, strict adherence to the 40-year polycyclic selection system, along with more dedicated enforcement and monitoring. Changes along these protocols would tremendously facilitate natural regeneration of different suites of timber species resulting in the improvement of the overall biodiversity conservation associated with the forest, more sustainable forest harvests and more income to those who receive permits.

Does Energy Transition Matter in the Energy Accessibility Discourse? Comparative Study of Rural and Urban Areas in Ghana

Does Energy Transition Matter in the Energy Accessibility Discourse? Comparative Study of Rural and Urban Areas in Ghana

Periodontal status and oral hygiene practices among adults in a peri-urban fishing community in Ghana.

Introductionfisherfolk play a major role in emerging economies such as Ghana. While many fishing communities are noted to be underdeveloped, fisherfolk are considered to neglect their oral hygiene, while being prone to certain conditions due to peculiar risks. The purpose of this study was to determine the periodontal health status of adults in a selected fishing community in Ghana.Methodsa descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out to assess the periodontal status of adults in Jamestown, a peri-urban area in Ghana. Data acquisition was by means of a structured questionnaire and periodontal examination. Information obtained consisted of demographic data (age, sex, education and occupation category) oral hygiene practices (type of teeth cleaning materials, methods of tooth cleansing, frequency of dental visits and reasons for the visit) and periodontal clinical parameters (plaque index, and community periodontal index of treatment needs).Resultsa total of 276 participants were included in the study, with ages ranging from 21 to 70 years. The participants were made up of 138 fisherfolk and 138 non-fisherfolk. Males had worse scores for periodontal disease compared to females. Plaque score did not vary among age groups, but changed significantly between educational level and occupational categories. CPITN varied significantly between educational levels, age categories and occupational categories.Conclusionthe study found inhabitants of the fishing community of Jamestown to have a generally unsatisfactory periodontal status, but worse for the fisherfolk in the community.

Sea Defence Project and a UNESCO World Heritage Monument in Coastal Ghana

Coastal erosion, sand and gravel mining, and open defecation threaten the sustainability and outstanding universal value (OUV) of heritage monuments dotted along the coast of Ghana. A sea defence project has been embarked upon in some areas in Ghana to, among other reasons, safeguard coastal resources, including the historic heritage monuments—castles and forts. This study examined the implications of the project for the sustainability and OUV of a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS) along the Ghanaian coastline. The study used a qualitative research design. In‐depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted to collect data from key stakeholders and analyzed using the thematic method. It became evident that the project has helped reduce oceanic effects, sand and gravel mining hazards, and open defecation in the direct neighbourhood of the site. These have increased the resilience and protective capacity of the monument and enhanced the aesthetic value and sanitation at the site, thereby shoring up the integrity and authenticity of the site and culminating in its enhanced sustainability and OUV. UNESCO, the State Party, Ghana Museums and Monuments Board, Municipal Authority, and Community Leaders should ensure that the advantages that have accrued to the site from the sea defence project are safeguarded and maximized. Additionally, the project should be extended to other coastal areas in the country where similar monuments are located to enable those monuments to derive similar benefits for sustainable development. The study contributes to understanding the protective and aesthetic nexus between coastal engineering and sustainable coastal heritage management.

Developmental Implications of the Chieftaincy Disputes in the Juaso Traditional Area of Ghana

Developmental Implications of the Chieftaincy Disputes in the Juaso Traditional Area of Ghana

Multimorbidity Among Migrant and Non-Migrant Ghanaians: The RODAM Study.

Objectives: Multimorbidity is a growing public health concern due to the increasing burden of non-communicable diseases, yet information about multimorbidity in low- and middle-income countries and migrant populations is scarce. We aimed to investigate the distribution and patterns of multimorbidity in rural and urban areas in Ghana and Ghanaian migrants in Europe. Methods: The RODAM cross-sectional study included 4,833 participants. Multimorbidity was defined as presence of multiple non-communicable chronic conditions. Patterns were determined from frequent combination of conditions. Prevalence ratios were estimated by logistic regression. Results: Prevalence of multimorbidity was higher in women and in urban Ghana and Europe. We observed a cardiometabolic pattern in all sites as well as circulatory-musculoskeletal and metabolic-musculoskeletal combinations in Ghana. Multimorbidity prevalence ratios were higher in Europe (men 1.47, 95% CI 1.34–1.59, women 1.18, 1.10–1.26) and urban Ghana (men 1.46, 1.31–1.59, women 1.27, 1.19–1.34). Conclusion: Distribution and patterns of multimorbidity differed by sex and site. With a higher burden of multimorbidity in urban areas, prevention strategies should focus on forestalling its increase in rapidly growing rural areas.

Stakeholder perspectives on adapting and disseminating Ghana\u2019s physical activity guidelines: a qualitative study

BackgroundGhana is facing the public health “double burden” of both communicable and chronic diseases. To combat increased chronic disease prevalence, physical activity promotion efforts are necessary. The Ministry of Health (MOH) developed physical activity guidelines in 2009, but community members are unaware of the guidelines and sample activities (e.g., ballroom dancing) are not culturally appropriate. The purposes of this study were to investigate 1) dissemination of the physical activity guidelines through MOH and Ghana Health Service (GHS) and 2) culturally appropriate physical activities.MethodsData were collected in urban and rural areas of Ghana through focus groups (N = 2) with community representatives and in-depth interviews (N = 15) with GHS health workers. Focus group and interview questions included recommended types of physical activity; interview questions included dissemination factors based on Diffusion of Innovations. The research team analyzed the data through an inductive, grounded theory approach.ResultsTogether, the focus groups and in-depth interviews generated 942 meaning units coded into themes of Physical Activity Perceptions (N = 337 meaning units), Suggested Physical Activities (N = 317), and Dissemination and Implementation Factors (N = 290). Participants had positive perceptions of physical activity but expressed concerns over individual abilities; barriers included the built environment and a lack of time. Suggested physical activities included walking, jogging, football, and dancing for adults; traditional games and football for youth, and walking and daily chores for older adults. Participants noted that guideline implementation was influenced by leadership engagement at multiple levels, relative advantage, and compatibility. Respondents suggested implementation strategies to resolve barriers, including involving partner organizations and developing an implementation plan. Participants were largely unaware of the physical activity guidelines; typical dissemination methods included written materials and the internet.ConclusionsThe results of this study suggest that physical activity guidelines should include familiar physical activities such as traditional games. Results also suggest that public health workers within GHS experience challenges in disseminating the physical activity guidelines. Adapting, disseminating, and implementing physical activity guidelines is a necessary step in increasing physical activity levels and preventing chronic diseases. These results contribute to understanding translation of physical activity policy to practice.

Carbon stock of above ground mangroves in the Lower Volta Area, Ghana

Abstract. Henry MJ, Gordon C, Pabi O. 2021. Carbon stock of above ground mangroves in the Lower Volta Area, Ghana. Indo Pac J Ocean Life 5: 61-73. The mangroves and other blue carbon systems are under high pressure because of coastal development and population. The degradation of mangrove continuity leads to the loss of the carbon stocks which is stored in the mangrove ecosystem. This study used GIS-based analysis using allometric equations and Landsat images to estimate the mangrove above-ground carbon stock in the Lower Volta area in Ghana. The classified Landsat images were used to obtain the mangrove area coverage. The ASTER GDEM covering the mangrove was calibrated to obtain the above-biomass, mangrove heights, and above ground carbon stock estimated using a global allometric equation. This study identified the socio-economic factors influencing mangrove exploitation and assessed local residents' willingness to use an alternative energy source, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). The carbon stock in 2014 for the study area was estimated at 269,379.5 Mg, and the carbon stock was estimated at 50.102 Mg per hectare. The changes in carbon stock on a time series analysis revealed that the study area lost its carbon stock between 1991 and 2014 at 161,428.65 Mg. The results indicated that significant factors influencing mangroves' exploitation were the commercial supply of fuel wood, increased income, and supply of fuel wood for domestic use. The local residents were less likely to use LPG as an alternative due to price and safety considerations and preferred mangroves as an energy source. All major stakeholders were recommended to contribute towards effectively managing and protecting the mangrove resource.

Creation of Ahafo region and local land market dynamics; evidence from Goaso and Nkaseim stool land areas in Ghana

This study examined land market dynamics in the new Ahafo Region. The study employed qualitative survey design and interviewed varied stakeholders in Goaso and Nkaseim stools areas. The results revealed that there is a growing land market characterised by rising land access cost, land use changes and adjustments in the local landholding profile within the market frontiers. This development is underpinned by new investment opportunities associated with the new region. The local land market is currently devoid of land guards’ activities and multiple sales. Again, almost all the state institutions and allied offices mandated to carryout land administration were yet to be established at the regional level. The study underscores the need for government to speed up with the decentralisation of regional offices of the land sector agencies to support the local land governance structures as impetus for efficient land market, growth and investments in the new region.

Trends and factors associated with the nutritional status of adolescent girls in Ghana: a secondary analysis of the 2003-2014 Ghana demographic and health survey (GDHS) data.

We examined the trends over time and the factors associated with malnutrition among adolescent girls in Ghana. Cross-sectional analysis from 3 nationwide Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in 2003 (n 983), 2008 (n 955) and 2014 (n 857). We used Cox proportional hazard models with sample weighting to model the prevalence ratio (PR) of malnutrition. Countrywide, covering rural and urban areas in Ghana. Non-pregnant adolescent girls aged 15-19 years. Compared with 2003, thinness declined marginally (PR 0·88 (95 % CI 0·45, 1·73)) in 2008 and in 2014 (PR 0·71 (95 % CI 0·38, 1·56)). Stunting declined marginally by 19 % in 2008 (PR 0·81 (95 % CI 0·59, 1·12)), flattening out in 2014 (PR 0·81 (95 % CI 0·57, 1·17)). We found an increasing trend of overweight/obesity with the PR peaking in 2014 (PR 1·39 (95 % CI 1·02, 1·88)) compared to 2003. The anaemia prevalence remained severe without a clear trend. A low level of education of the adolescent girl was positively associated with stunting. Increasing age was positively associated with stunting but inversely associated with thinness and anaemia. Girls who ever bore a child were more likely to be anaemic compared to those who never did. A lower level of household wealth and a unit increase in household size was negatively associated with overweight/obesity. Urban dwelling girls were less likely to be stunted. The stagnant burden of under-nutrition and rising over-nutrition emphasise the need for double-duty actions to tackle malnutrition in all its forms in Ghanaian adolescent girls.

Review on Connecting the Complex Dots of Environmental Problems in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) of Ghana

For years, Accra has been facing huge environmental challenges. Efficient policy frameworks coupled with prudent urban management are deemed as reasonable balance to environmental benefits. Research reveals urban areas in Ghana are confronted with the rapid loss of natural resources as urbanization increases. This synthesis report examines the ramifications of major issues faced by the Greater Accra region based on existing literature by (i) highlighting contemporary environmental problems in Accra (ii) probing into human-induced and natural factors that alterate environmental harmony in the study area (iii) discussing measures on safeguarding the environment through a sustainable approach in Accra, and (iv) presenting policy implications of environmental problems in Accra. Findings indicated urbanization, poverty and inappropriate urban planning systems influence environmental degradation in the study domain. Anthropogenic activities such as pollution and natural hazards like: flooding, drought and windstorms events have altered the physical properties of Accra. This paper reveals the assumption and execution of values to safeguard environmental resources in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area.