Arctic Offshore Research Articles

Implementing U.S. Arctic Policy: An Analysis of Federal Recommendations

ABSTRACT We outline U.S. Arctic policy recommendations, goals, and strategic plans promulgated by federal entities in recent years, then analyze the policies and determine the most commonly referenced policy recommendation. This analysis is valuable in the interest of identifying an overall direction for Arctic policy as suggested by the selected federal entities in the United States. We then delve into the oil and gas industry presence in the U.S. Arctic outer continental shelf and the existing federal permitting process by conducting a case study of Shell's 2012 Arctic offshore exploration activities in the Chukchi and Beaufort seas. We conclude with an assessment of key policies and recommend next steps for implementation.

Big Barriers to Building a New Generation of Arctic Vessels

The industry’s experience thus far drilling offshore the Arctic is a powerful argument to build a new generation of vessels and drilling rigs purpose built for operations in heavy ice. Many of the new exploration concepts that seek to overcome challenges in the Arctic were presented at the recent 2014 Arctic Offshore Technology Conference in Houston. Alexander Brovkin, a facilities and logistics adviser at the Chevron Arctic Center, agrees that while new vessel technology is needed for exploration drilling in the Arctic, first the resource must be proved by the drill bit. “An operator must first have a portfolio of Arctic wells before making a significant capital investment to design or build something new,” he said, adding that companies will be pushed to make decisions soon in order to comply with the terms and deadlines set by their offshore leases. Following Shell’s recent experiences, Arctic exploration off North America is at the moment paralyzed. Considered to be two of the most promising Arctic areas, development in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas offshore Alaska has stalled out despite there being dozens of leases in those areas set to expire over the next couple of years. And after spending billions of dollars on its Arctic drilling program to date, Shell canceled all operations in the area for this year. The decision followed a series of accidents during the company’s Alaskan expeditions that began 2 years ago, one of which involved a drillship running aground, and a United States federal court decision that created uncertainty over the terms of its leases. ConocoPhillips and Statoil followed suit and have indefinitely postponed their Arctic drilling plans off Alaska. However, in the Russian Arctic, ExxonMobil and Rosneft are pressing ahead with a joint venture using conventional semisubmersible technology, which limits their operations to the open water season.

Risk management in the Alaska Arctic offshore: wicked problems require new paradigms

The Alaska Arctic offshore is a “wicked” project environment because it is unique, socially and technically complex, has changing requirements and constraints to solutions, and involves multiple stakeholders who have different views and values about project risks related to resource development. Analysis of stakeholder conceptual approaches to risk, risk attitudes and data sources explain how and why risk perceptions vary. The data are 22 presentations from a seminar series on defining risk in Arctic offshore resource development, including perspectives of regulatory agencies, oil companies, consultants, local governments, environmental NGOs and academics. Discussion addresses the limitations of traditional risk management for complex projects, provides a case study of the Alaska Arctic offshore and suggests a unique combination of strategies for navigating wicked projects, including systems thinking, risk leadership, participatory process, problem structuring and norms and practices of high reliability organizations.

Fragmented International Governance of Arctic Offshore Oil: Governance Challenges and Institutional Improvement

The governance architecture in the Arctic region is subject to broad public and academic debate. Existing governance arrangements are not considered sufficient to minimize risks and impacts from Arctic offshore oil activities. These governance arrangements are fragmented between law of the sea norms, numerous regulatory conventions, and non-legally binding guidelines produced by the Arctic Council, an informal body of the eight Arctic states. While the benign form of cooperative fragmentation seems to prevail, specific governance challenges exist. The nature of these governance challenges and political feasibility considerations suggest an enabling joint management approach for the architecture of Arctic governance.

Offshore Oil and Gas Regulation in the Arctic: Room for Harmonization?

Is there room for Arctic Ocean coastal states to harmonize how they regulate offshore oil and gas activity in the Arctic Ocean? This article answers yes, that coastal state authorities responsible for regulating offshore activity can work incrementally toward convergence in matters they identify as best suited to harmonization. Canada and the United States are the focal points of this study. Their shared maritime boundary in the Beaufort Sea traverses a part of the Arctic Ocean that is poised for expanded oil and gas exploration. Even if the boundary were not the subject of a well-managed diplomatic disagreement, regulators would do well to consider how their practices might complement and benefit both states. Possible advantages range from efficiencies in sharing baseline geo-physical, oceanographic or biological information, to combining resources for oil spill response planning. Such bilateral discussions can also provide lessons for offshore oil and gas regulators throughout the circumpolar north.In the wake of the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon/BP Macondo explosion and blowout in the Gulf of Mexico, regulators around the world began reviewing their respective approaches to offshore regulation. This paper draws in part on the results of those studies, in part on US and Canadian executive and legislative provisions, and on other literature.The Appendix contains a partial listing of Forums and Studies Relevant to Arctic Offshore regulation through June 2012.

Interior Department Suggests Improvements for Offshore Arctic Oil and Gas Drilling

Shell's “difficulties” during its 2012 program to drill offshore oil and natural gas exploration wells in the Alaskan Arctic Ocean “have raised serious questions regarding its ability to operate safely and responsibly in the challenging and unpredictable conditions offshore Alaska,” according to the report “Review of Shell's 2012 Alaska Offshore Oil and Gas Exploration Program,” issued by the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) on 8 March. Noting the company's lack of adequate preparation for drilling in the Arctic, its failure to deploy a specialized Arctic Containment System, and the grounding of the Kulluk drilling rig near Kodiak Island last December, the report recommends that Shell develop a comprehensive and integrated plan describing its future drilling program and related operations and that it commission a third‐party audit of its management systems, including its safety and environmental management systems program.

Of whales and oil: Inuit resource governance and the Arctic Council

ABSTRACTThis article takes a normative approach to explore what and how we might learn from existing indigenous governance arrangements in the Arctic and how they may contribute to the larger debates over Arctic governance and who decides. It begins with a brief exploration of the existing literature regarding co-management; particularly what some legal scholars have defined as post-Westphalian resource management as well as engaging ongoing discussions about co-management as it pertains to the Arctic. It then turns to the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission (AEWC) as a case study and possible starting point for governing newly emerging resource management issues in the Arctic. Specifically, this article will look at how the governance framework of the AEWC might be applicable for the current governance discussions regarding Arctic offshore oil and gas development. Lastly, this paper will offer preliminary reflections as to how a post-sovereign resource management approach could contribute to the broader theoretical debates concerning who owns the Arctic and who decides. Specifically it offers one possible way to envisage the future of a strengthened Arctic Council operating in a world where states are not the only actors participating in the governance of the Arctic.

Strategic environmental assessment opportunities and risks for Arctic offshore energy planning and development

Abstract Canada's Arctic environment is rich in hydrocarbon resources. As international attention turns to the Arctic to meet global energy demands there is increased recognition of the need to advance upstream impact assessment and decision-making to plan for energy development. There have been several applications of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) over the past decade in the international offshore energy sector; however, SEA remains underdeveloped offshore in comparison to project-based environmental impact assessment and unchartered territory in Canada's Arctic. This paper examines stakeholder perceptions of the opportunities and risks of advancing SEA for offshore energy planning and development in Canada's Beaufort Sea. Results indicate a number of perceived opportunities for SEA, including improved regulatory efficiency, better regional baselines and planning practices, an opportunity to assess cumulative effects, more meaningful project-based assessment, and greater certainty for industry stakeholders. At the same time there are a number of perceived risks, including foregoing anticipated development opportunities, the loss of flexibility in decision making, adding another layer of bureaucracy, and the added uncertainties of a novel approach. The implications of these findings for advancing SEA in the offshore energy sector are discussed.

Масштабы эмиграции жидких и газообразных углеводородов в Западно-Арктических акваториях России

Масштабы эмиграции жидких и газообразных углеводородов в Западно-Арктических акваториях России

여름철 Chukchi Borderland 부근 해빙 재료특성 계측

Sea ice properties have been considered a key indicator in the structural design criteria of icebreaking vessels and arctic offshore platforms to estimate design ice load and resistance for their safety management in Arctic Ocean. A measurement study of sea ice properties was conducted during July to August of 2011 with the Korean icebreaking research vessel "Araon" around Chukchi Borderland. The sea ice concentration appears to be rapidly decreasing during this cruise. Ice condition seems to be thick second-year ice and multi-year ice and then, a lot of melt ponds were observed in the surface of ice floe. Calculated flexural strength of sea ice was about 250~550kPa, ice thickness was roughly 1.3~3.0m. In this research we performed field experiment to measure ice temperature along the depth, thickness, density, salinity, brine volume ratio and crystal structure. Apparent conductivities derived with the electromagnetic induction instrument were compared to drill hole measurement results and accuracy of sea ice thickness estimation formula was discussed.

Offshore Oil and Gas Regulation in the Arctic: Room for Harmonization?

Is there room for Arctic Ocean coastal states to harmonize how they regulate offshore oil and gas activity in the Arctic Ocean? This article answers yes, that coastal state authorities responsible for regulating offshore activity can work incrementally toward convergence in matters they identify as best suited to harmonization. Canada and the United States are the focal points of this study. Their shared maritime boundary in the Beaufort Sea traverses a part of the Arctic Ocean that is poised for expanded oil and gas exploration. Even if the boundary were not the subject of a well-managed diplomatic disagreement, regulators would do well to consider how their practices might complement and benefit both states. Possible advantages range from efficiencies in sharing baseline geo-physical, oceanographic or biological information, to combining resources for oil spill response planning. Such bilateral discussions can also provide lessons for offshore oil and gas regulators throughout the circumpolar north.In the wake of the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon/BP Macondo explosion and blowout in the Gulf of Mexico, regulators around the world began reviewing their respective approaches to offshore regulation. This paper draws in part on the results of those studies, in part on US and Canadian executive and legislative provisions, and on other literature.The Appendix contains a partial listing of Forums and Studies Relevant to Arctic Offshore regulation through June 2012.

Development of Canadian Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Drilling: Lessons from the Gulf of Mexico

Canada's National Energy Board has undertaken a review of general safety and environmental protection requirements for Arctic offshore drilling within the country's jurisdiction. The review is focusing, among other things, on the requirement for same season relief well (SSRW) capacity for Arctic offshore operators, and whether proposed alternatives are sufficiently robust to allow removal of the SSRW requirement. Given the significant threat offshore drilling poses to the fragile Arctic ecosystem, safety requirements must be strengthened, not weakened. The SSRW capability requirement should be maintained, and other policies, regulations and requirements ought to be strengthened and improved.

Reconciliation, Indigenous Rights and Offshore Oil and Gas Development in the Canadian Arctic

In this article, the author addresses the potential impacts of Arctic offshore oil and gas development on Indigenous communities who reside in northern Canada. She argues that the potential environmental, social and cultural harms of such development may disproportionately affect such Indigenous communities. Relying on Canadian jurisprudence, she suggests that the principle of reconciliation may help mitigate the negative impacts of the development of Arctic offshore oil and gas resources. A fulsome conception of reconciliation supports meaningful consultation, efforts to substantially address Indigenous concerns, and ongoing collaborative negotiations in the context of offshore oil and gas development in the Arctic.

Comprehensive Contingency Planning for Arctic Offshore Operations

ABSTRACT Exploration and production of Arctic oil and gas resources faces some unique challenges associated with the physical nature of the Arctic environment such as low temperatures, presence of ice, unique biological resources, remoteness of the area, as well as low population density, limited communications network and lack of infrastructure. Contingency planning and emergency response under such conditions require extensive planning and special mitigation measures. In this paper we share some of the best practices implemented by Shell during the preparation for exploratory drilling in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea and Chukchi Sea. Steps undertaken by Shell to achieve the highest level of environmental protection include: Spill prevention measures, including 24-hour/7 day-a-week monitoring of drilling activities through Real Time Operation Centers, advanced weather monitoring and forecasting, mechanical barriers, etc. Comprehensive contingency planning incorporating Arctic-capable response equipment, on-si...

Chapter 25 Tectonic setting, structure and petroleum geology of the Siberian Arctic offshore sedimentary basins

Abstract The paper summarizes the results of geological and geophysical studies of the Siberian Arctic Shelf (Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi seas), which is one of the largest continental shelves on Earth. This region consists of as many as 22 significant sedimentary basins of variable age and genesis which are expected to bear significant undiscovered volumes of hydrocarbons. Two major groups of the basins are identified based on the age of the underlying crustal basement: (1) post-Hauterivian/Barremian basins resting on the Late Mesozoic folded basement; and (2) older (Late Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic?) basins preserved outboard of the Late Mesozoic deformational front in the northern part of the East Siberian and Chukchi seas. At least two significant tectonic events caused the overall tectonic pattern of the shelf as well as formation and structural styles of its individual crustal domains and the sedimentary basins: (1) Late Mesozoic convergence and subsequent collision of the Arctic Alaska–Chukchi Microplate with the Verkhoyansk–Kolyma/Omolon margin of the North Asia Continent around 130–125 Ma (the Verkhoyansk–Brookian compressional event); and (2) a series of Cretaceous and Cenozoic extensional events related to the origin of the Arctic oceanic basins. Based on 2D regional multichannel seismic reflection data constrained by onshore geology, plate tectonic models and inter-regional correlations, as well as on gravity and magnetic grids, the structural styles, lithostratigraphy and possible hydrocarbon systems of the offshore sedimentary basins are considered.

Erratum to Chapter 25 Tectonic setting, structure and petroleum geology of the Siberian Arctic offshore sedimentary basins

Erratum for Drachev, S. S., Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 35, 369–394. Figure 25.8 on p. 378 is incorrect on the DVD and online version of this paper. The corrected image appears below. Fig. 25.8. Structure of the Laptev Rift …

Development of Russian Oil and Gas Regimes Focusing on the Shtokman Field: Institutional Drivers

This study focuses on the role of political forces in the formation and change of an organizational field. Emerging Arctic offshore industry in contemporary Russia is chosen as a context for empirical investigation. Institutional theory perspective is applied to analyze change processes in governance relations between political and business actors. Building on a qualitative case study of the Shtokman Project and the formation of its supply industry, the research shows that the political actors involved have various different—and sometimes conflicting—institutional logical frameworks. As a result of their interactions, the governance regime has changed toward a complex mixture of such coordination forms as hierarchy, market, network, and clan. Institutional drivers for changing the organizational field of suppliers originate from regulative institutional pressures, interaction of different actors, and uncertainty about future development. In such conditions, the suppliers are motivated to decouple their practices or passively imitate other actors. This may also lead to more diversity in the organizational field.

A numerical model for real-time simulation of ship–ice interaction

A ship advancing in level ice will introduce several failure processes to the ice sheet, such as localised crushing and breaking due to bending stresses. The resulting ice fragments will interact with each other, with water and with the hull of the ship. They may rotate, collide, or slide along ship's hull, and eventually they will be cleared away. The situation is different in a broken ice field, i.e., large ice floes may behave similar to level ice while smaller floes will mostly be pushed aside, rotated or submerged. Modelling of such a complex system is very demanding and often computationally expensive which would typically hinder the chances for real-time simulations. This kind of simulations can be very useful for training personnel for Arctic offshore operations and procedures, for analysing the efficiency of various ice management concepts and as a part of the onboard support systems for station keeping. The challenge of meeting the real-time criterion is overcome in the present paper. The paper describes a numerical model to simulate the process of ship–ice interaction in real-time . New analytical closed form solutions are established and used to represent the ice breaking process. PhysX is used for the first time to solve the equations of rigid body motions in 6 degrees of freedom for all ice floes in the calculation domain. The results of the simulator are validated against experimental data from model-scale and full-scale tests. The validation tests exhibited a satisfactory agreement between the model calculations and experimental measurements.

Methodology for estimating probability of success of Escape, Evacuation, and Rescue (EER) strategies for arctic offshore facilities

Abstract Offshore oil and gas production platforms must have Escape, Evacuation, and Rescue (EER) plans and resources to protect personnel in the event of a major accident. However, for offshore platforms in arctic regions, existing solutions may not be sufficient due to the extreme environmental conditions. This paper presents a methodology for evaluating the relative probabilities of success of arctic EER strategies to (1) help prioritize technology development and data collection efforts needed to develop and select a robust EER strategy and (2) analyze the predicted probabilities of success of various EER strategies in more detail once the input parameters are better known. The methodology is based on well known risk assessment tools (event trees and Monte Carlo simulation) that can easily be adjusted to account for the appropriate level of detail. As an example, the method is applied to hypothetical EER strategies composed of various combinations of helicopters, ice-breaking platform supply vessels, Air Cushioned Vehicles, Tracked Amphibious Vehicles, and ice-strengthened lifeboats. Input parameters used in the analysis include prevalence of various environmental conditions by month (low temperature, high seas, low visibility, etc.), ability to deploy craft in a hazardous situation, ability to transit over ice ridges, ability to transit heavy seas, operator competence, etc.

Numerical evaluation of ice scouring effects on a buried pipe in a centrifuge test

Protection against ice scouring is one of the design considerations for Arctic offshore pipelines. In order to avoid the damaging effects of ice scouring, submarine pipelines are buried in the seabed. Optimum burial depths for offshore pipelines have been the subject of both experimental and numerical studies. In the present investigation, a numerical analysis is conducted to simulate the interaction between a model scale ice feature and a buried pipe. The effects of ice scouring on soil deformations, displacements and rotations of the pipe, stress states in the soil mass, and soil pressure acting on the pipe are determined. The experimental data from centrifuge tests reported in the literature and the numerical results obtained in the present study are compared.