Architectural Design Process Research Articles

The Use and Development of Artificial Intelligence in Architectural Design Processes

Artificial intelligence is widely used as an interactive technology in various professional disciplines. The widespread use of these technologies, which we benefit from in most areas of our lives, in the education sector will provide important developments in the field of education. The main purpose of this study is based on analysing the existing studies in which the use of artificial intelligence helps in architectural design processes. In the study, identification, screening, eligibility, inclusion and data analysis processes were carried out in three search engines such as Web of Science, ScienceDirect and ULAKBIM. While reporting the research, ‘Systematic Literature Review’ and ‘Preferred Reporting Items for Meta-Analysis’ protocols were followed and a total of 35 relevant articles were identified. In the research, three popular Artificial Intelligence applications used in architectural design processes were identified as Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN), Machine Learning and Data Mining. In addition, Systematic Literature Review (SLR) outputs show that most researchers are supported by artificial intelligence applications in architectural design processes. As a result of the research, it was determined that artificial intelligence is widely used in architectural design processes, however, it has positive effects in 3D and animation parts.

Cultural Imprints on Urban Housing: A Spatial Analysis of Apartment Designs in Kenya, Ghana, and South Africa

Apartment design is often assumed to follow a standardized model, disregarding cultural influences. However, cultural context can significantly shape the spatial organization of living environments. A significant gap exists in addressing how cultural factors influence apartment design in rapidly urbanizing African cities. Modern architectural practices frequently overlook the sociocultural dynamics essential for creating living spaces that resonate with local populations. This study investigates the spatial configuration of apartment units in three African countries—Kenya, South Africa, and Ghana—challenging the notion of universally homogeneous apartment designs. By applying Space Syntax, a quantitative analysis tool, this study examines how cultural factors distinctly influence the layout of apartments. The findings reveal significant variations, particularly in the design of corridors, domestic servant quarters, and the separation of private zones. This research highlights the importance of incorporating cultural considerations into architectural design processes to promote housing solutions that are functionally efficient, culturally relevant, and responsive to local social norms. Future research could explore how these cultural influences manifest across different housing types, such as informal settlements and high-rise apartments, or examine the impact of migration and globalization on evolving housing needs.

A Systematic Mapping Study and a Review of the Optimization Methods of Structures in Architectural Design

Structural optimization has gained popularity in modern structural design, helping to reduce material consumption while maintaining the structural performance of buildings. This process also significantly influences the architectural appearance, affecting various aspects such as cross-section sizing, structural forms, and the layout of structural members. Beyond minimizing materials or costs, structural optimization can serve as a powerful tool for making architecture more visually appealing. However, with the wide variety of structural optimization methods proposed, gaining a comprehensive overview has become challenging. To address this, a systematic mapping study has been conducted, focusing on methods introduced over the past decade. The relevant journal articles are categorized based on several factors, including types of optimization, materials used, structural typologies, areas of application, and optimization objectives. The results of this study provide both a broad overview of recent developments in structural optimization and valuable insights into research-rich and under-explored areas. Moreover, the paper discusses which types of structural optimization are more relevant when applied as part of the architectural design process. It is suggested that future research should focus on identifying gaps and challenges in effectively applying structural optimization to architectural design, thus enhancing both efficiency and aesthetic potential.

Environmental analysis in UK modern methods of construction (MMC) housing: insights from early-stage architectural design process

PurposeModern Methods of Construction (MMC) have been promoted as a solution to address housing shortages and meet sustainability goals in the UK. However, the practical functioning of MMC, particularly in relation to early-stage environmental analyses, remains underexplored. This study aims to fill this gap by providing empirical insights into how architects engage in environmental analysis in early-stage MMC housing designs.Design/methodology/approachThis qualitative pilot study is based on a detailed case study of a UK architectural firm specializing in modular housing. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight architects with varying MMC experience. Thematic analysis of the qualitative data allowed for the exploration of key themes influencing early-stage environmental analysis, offering a narrative account of architects’ experiences in MMC practices.FindingsThe study reveals that environmental analysis in MMC is shaped by social, organisational and project-based factors. Three key themes emerged: uncertainty in environmental assumptions, dependencies on external consultants and the dominance of Passivhaus principles in design decisions. These factors challenge the integration of environmental considerations during the early design stages of MMC projects.Research limitations/implicationsAs this is a single case study, the findings might not be generalizable. Future research should expand on multiple firms and project settings to validate and broaden these findings.Originality/valueThis study provides an in-depth understanding of the challenges architects face when integrating environmental analysis into MMC. This reveals the relational and interdependent nature of environmental analysis in MMC projects, where decisions are shaped by multiple social, organisational and project-specific factors. By emphasizing these interdependencies, this study provides original insights into how environmental considerations can be integrated more effectively into the early design stages of MMC projects.

Learning from Users: Everyday Playful Interactions to Support Architectural Spatial Changes

While there's growing interest in eliciting situated playful interactions with technologies in different contexts, how these interactions might shape everyday spaces still needs to be fully explored. To address this gap, this article aims to guide the architectural spatial changes by exploring everyday playful interactions of technology-adopted users in domestic spaces. We present our contributions in a two-fold study: First, through an extensive diary study involving 13 technology-adopted residents in gated communities, where distinct boundaries offer increased opportunities for playful interactions, we identified four playful themes: (1) creating and expanding play-spaces, (2) balancing play and comfort, (3) intertwining imagination with spatial experience, and (4) gamifying household interactions. Secondly, by building on these themes, we outline three design implications to inform architectural design processes, aiming to translate everyday playful interactions into tangible spatial changes. These implications include adapting shape-changing and wearable technologies for playful flexibility, embedding new forms of communications within infrastructures, and turning homes into interactive entities with multi-sensory technologies. While these findings provide a starting point for exploring new architectural design possibilities in similar environments, further research with architects, policymakers, and design researchers in the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and Human-Building Interaction (HBI) fields is essential to actualizing these changes.

The “Cognitive” Architectural Design Process and Its Problem with Recent Artificial Intelligence Applications

The connection between cognitive science and the architectural design process reveals significant gaps that limit the full potential of creating effective built environments. A key issue is the insufficient integration of cognitive principles into design workflows. Architects frequently rely on traditional methods and aesthetic considerations without fully understanding how spatial configurations influence human cognition and behavior. While recent AI applications in architecture, such as Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD), Building Information Modeling (BIM), and interactive web and VR presentations, show promising advancements, AI still struggles with complex architectural functions. AI lacks the creativity and imagination inherent in human cognition. It operates based on fixed programming, producing specific outcomes and requiring human oversight to apply insights from one dataset to another. The primary challenge in using AI for architectural design is ensuring minimal design flaws, as replicating human cognitive abilities with AI and various machine learning techniques remains difficult. This research paper aims to explore the relationship between cognitive science, artificial intelligence, and the architectural design process through four main objectives: First, to investigate the integration of AI with current architectural software applications. Second, to examine potential connections between AI and major architectural design trends. Third, to define two frameworks for the Cognitive Architectural Design Process to guide the development of AI systems in architectural design by analyzing key cognitive design theories. Finally, to create a proposed "Architectural Design Process-Cognitive Pilot Map" from an architectural perspective to aid AI programmers in developing architecture design software applications.

The Silicon Architect: Transformation Towards a Data-Centric Mindset

This paper investigates the emergence of a novel ‘data-centric’ mindset within architecture and its implications for the architectural design process. Defined by engagement with new technology (Data Science, Big Data, Machine Learning) this mindset is driving new insight toward novel aesthetics and ultimately new disciplinary hypotheses. The literature review first tracks distinguishable transitions in the architectural mindset through the architects that have embodied them (Master Builder, Beaux-Art, Modernist, and Parametric Architect) culminating with what is here termed the ‘Silicon Architect’. Next, three archetypal case studies reveal how the architectural design process is re-potentialized through a data-centric mindset, allowing architects to ultimately escape their imaginative limits and arrive at new disciplinary ambitions. The data-centric inclinations of these architects have resulted in a fusion of human-machine cognition. Through this ‘composite’ cognition, architects can now push beyond more typical ambitions (i.e. the creation of novel forms) toward an encounter with notions of ‘hypotheses generation’ and ‘disciplinary prospection’ via non-human cognitive input. This new mindset emerging in the Silicon Architect is set to re-direct the architectural design process, and in doing so, help the discipline escape the limits of its own paradigmatic imagination in ways that operate beyond human cognitive capabilities. In this sense, research sheds light on the influences that may shape future architectural design processes and the architects who may evolve.

TOGAF's Approach in Developing an Enterprise Architecture for the Information Technology Security Industry

The information technology security industry, encompassing various activities such as risk identification and assessment, policy development, and solution implementation, plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and security of information systems. This study aims to develop and implement an efficient and effective enterprise architecture within the information security sector, focusing on three key core processes identified as the major revenue contributors: risk identification and assessment, security policy development, and security solution implementation. Utilizing the TOGAF-based Enterprise Architecture framework, this research identifies and designs architecture that integrates various systems, applications, and business processes, facilitating better alignment within the organization. The architecture design process involves a thorough analysis of operational needs and business strategies, leading to the development of a model that enhances efficiency and reduces the risk of failure in technology implementation. The outcomes of this study are intended to provide practical guidance for information security companies to optimize operations, simplify system complexities, and achieve strategic goals more effectively. It is anticipated that the application of the designed architecture will have a significant positive impact on the company's ability to address challenges and dynamic needs within the information security industry.

Sketching Versus Digital Design Tools in Architectural Design

Sketching is a design tool that can be assumed to be ill-structured, does not offer exact solutions, is intuitive, and is open-ended in the initial stages of architectural design. Sketching creates an opportunity for architects to release their creativity and intuition, giving rise to spontaneous ideas and concepts in an organic and natural way. During the initial design phases, like in the conceptual stage of the design, designers receive aid from conventional sketching as their concepts and ideas can easily transform into tangible, real-world forms. With the development of digital design methods like CAD (computer-aided design) in pursuit of AI (artificial intelligence), it has been accepted that manual sketches are no longer the only method used in the design process, and the trend toward using new methods has begun. The diversity and evolution of tools used in architectural design, together with the integration of CAD, AI, and traditional sketching techniques, have contributed to the development of architectural design and facilitated enhanced collaboration, visualization, and efficiency across the design process. As a result, it has evolved to embrace the use of CAD, which was the first method adopted from these developments, as a basic skill in the field of architectural design education. This shift places a strong emphasis on the professional field of architectural design while also encouraging students to explore the innovative potential of CAD for design purposes. CAD presents architects with a robust platform that facilitates the creation of intricate designs and precise measurements during the initial stages of the design process. Following CAD, the development of AI-driven design tools motivates architecture students and designers to transform their concepts into concrete designs. Although it is known that each method mentioned has its own positive or negative aspects, it is not possible to say that any of them is used alone in architectural design processes. At this point, combining the design process with CAD and AI-supported design tools, as well as traditional manual sketching in architecture, helps develop a diverse and adaptable skill set in design. Integrating digital design tools into the architectural field emphasizes the enduring importance of traditional sketches, especially in terms of inspiration and conceptualization in architectural design, while also updating the design process. This document aims to explore the progression of employing diverse design tools, namely manual sketching, CAD, and AI-driven design tools, throughout the architectural design process. This paper undertakes a comparative analysis of using computational design tools instead of traditional sketching with pen and pencil, aiming to juxtapose their respective benefits and drawbacks. In conclusion, although it is not yet possible to assert the superiority of one method over the other, it is evident that traditional sketching continues to hold significant relevance and effectiveness in the design process despite its long-term use.

How Artificial Intelligence Could Affect the Future of Architectural Design Education

There is currently a high level of uncertainty about the potential impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on architecture as a profession and consequently on architectural education. Some suggest that schools of architecture should prepare themselves for a dramatic reform that clearly integrates AI technologies into their study plans and pedagogical methods, while others argue that AI can’t fully replace the traditional methods and conventions in architectural education and that more time is needed to understand its potential impact in this regard. In all cases, AI is coming and will be soon or later an integral part of our work and teaching methods in architecture. This paper discusses this issue considering some AI applications in the different design stages from an educational perspective. The study concluded that there is an urgent need to explore and understand how AI could affect our educational systems and provoke changes in the architectural design process we currently follow. Quality assurance organizations should reflect this in their accreditation guidelines to offer the required guidance for the schools of architecture in this regard.

Application of multimodal learning in daylight provision and view quality assessment of residential building layouts

Optimizing the layout of residential buildings based on daylight performance and view quality is crucial to visual comfort and well-being of building occupants. Machine Learning (ML) methods offer valuable support for performance-based decision-making process at the early-stage building design. In this study, a novel workflow is introduced to integrate ML models into the architectural design process. With the designer’s input floor layout designs, the presented multimodal ML model predicts daylight provision and view quality, which are then translated into practical visual representations by a post-processing step. This approach allows input designs to be evaluated by the ML model, leading to enhanced design decisions while preserving the designer’s autonomy. Results for the best-performing model, implementing ResNet50 and a fully connected network, led to a Mean Square Error (MSE) of 0.0440 and 0.0478, and an R2 score of 0.7411 and 0.7815 for the daylight and view metrics, respectively. The results of the daylight and view predictive models are further interpreted according to different apartment categories and at various resolutions. These results indicate that the method could be viable for predicting daylight provision and view quality in early design tools, providing designers with faster feedback that supports informed decision-making during design iterations. Ultimately, the challenges of the study and further improvements are discussed.

Housing customization: envisioning an interface to support co-design processes

PurposeThere are several studies showing that end-users' participation in the architectural design process of houses is critical to their satisfaction (e.g. Önder et al., 2010; Ammar et al., 2013). Housing that is not adjusted to inhabitants' needs leads to modification works (Davidson et al., 2007) that could be avoided if their design was defined from the beginning with their participation. Digital technologies, such as 3D interactive visualization, benefit co-design processes by helping non-specialists better understand space and design possibilities (Salter et al., 2009; Schroth et al., 2006). However, the available literature shows that existing co-design digital tools were not developed based on potential users’ requirements. This paper aims to define the user requirements of a co-design tool for housing customization.Design/methodology/approachInterviews were conducted to gather information on how participatory processes occur in housing cooperatives and identify how potential users can collaborate in the design definition of their houses using a digital tool.FindingsThe interviews were analyzed, and requirements were defined.Originality/valueThis work contributes to the advancement of knowledge since the tool is defined based on requirements collected from potential end-users. By using a user-centered approach, the tool can contribute to more effective and informed collaboration.

To draw or not to draw? Evaluating the impact of computer-aided drawing tools on productivity in architectural design

This empirical study investigates the architectural design process, focusing on the influence of computer-aided drawing (CAD) tools during the initial design stages. Given the increasing reliance on CAD tools in contemporary architectural practice, the primary objective is to assess quantitatively how CAD tool adoption affects design productivity. The research was conducted in two phases, utilizing the protocol analysis method. In the first phase, we introduced a novel approach by having third-year architecture students complete two design assignments: the first using traditional freehand sketches and the second employing CAD tools. This unique method allowed us to capture their design actions and thoughts using the Concurrent verbalization technique. In the second phase, a meticulous comparison of the two sets of design protocols was undertaken. The analysis yielded surprising and counterintuitive results. Contrary to common beliefs, the use of CAD tools during early design phases can lead to unintended outcomes. Despite their digital precision and convenience, these tools may inadvertently impede cognitive productivity. Designers employing CAD tools showed signs of hesitation and indecision, resulting in prolonged design timelines and diminished ideational productivity. These findings have profound implications for architectural education and practice. They underscore the necessity for a balanced approach to integrating CAD tools into design processes. Educators and professionals must carefully consider the potential impact of these tools on the creative process, prompting a reassessment of their role in architectural design curricula and workflows. Future research holds great promise in exploring strategies to optimize CAD tool usage to mitigate their disruptive effects on early-stage architectural design. Additionally, investigating the role of training and interface design in enhancing the synergy between designers and digital tools offers exciting and fruitful research directions. In summary, this study highlights the complex relationship between CAD tools and cognitive productivity in architectural design, prompting a reexamination of their role in shaping the design landscape.

Animal-Aided Design – planning for biodiversity in the built environment by embedding a species’ life-cycle into landscape architectural and urban design processes

There are suggestions of how to integrate biodiversity-friendly measures into both architecture and landscape architecture, however it is unclear how to systematically include the needs of other organisms such as animals. One particular challenge is the conflict between amenity and biodiversity, as the human designer aims for good design, which often appears to be incompatible with biodiversity-friendly measures. Here we describe ‘Animal-Aided Design’ (AAD) as a methodology to systematically include animals into the planning cycle of project-based planning. The basic idea of AAD is to make animals an integral part of the design and define their needs at the beginning of the planning process. The requirements of target species then set boundary conditions for the planning process, but also serve as an inspiration for the design itself. We illustrate our methodology using theoretical examples, mostly from Western Europe, in particular Germany.

The Impact of Site Contexts in Increasing the Diversity of Architectural Concepts: Using an Interactive Architectural Approach

Recently, new alternatives have been applied to enhance the architectural design process through comprehensive interaction with all variables. This approach suggests a dynamic scheme to collect all factors comprehensively. This research introduces approaches to better cognition of architectural concepts based on the site context parameter. It investigates the role of site context in generating architectural ideas by formulating a model of analysis to find similarities and differences in senior architects’ strategies. This approach aims to adapt context to explore aspects that may create diversity in architectural products. The reality is that creating original architectural concepts has received progressively less attention in the professional practice of architecture in recent decades. The research applied a mixed methodology, checklist factors and graphical analysis. It used a two-level method with several steps to evaluate the twelve international cases related to deconstructive architects (Eisenman, Koolhaas, and Hadid). This study concludes that creating a site context that supports the surrounding context can enrich the design concept and create unexpected results.

Integrating Multimodal Generative AI and Blockchain for Enhancing Generative Design in the Early Phase of Architectural Design Process

Integrating Multimodal Generative AI and Blockchain for Enhancing Generative Design in the Early Phase of Architectural Design Process

Behaviour setting transformation methodology, filling in the gaps of the conventional architectural design process.

This article recounts 6 years of empirical research in a humanitarian context on spatial behaviour using the behaviour settings theory. This research journey details the shortcomings of conventional architectural processes and the subsequent development of a human-centred behaviour setting methodology that drives behaviour change for adaptable spaces. The research work puts Barker's theory of behaviour settings into practice to show its significant methodological abilities in shaping behaviours through spaces. While the original theory was solely an analytical account of existing behaviours in certain settings, this study marks the first pragmatic exploration of the theory into both residential and refugee contexts. The methodology that is subsequently proposed is a complementary tool to account for the deficiencies of conventional architectural design processes. A method that enables one to fully immerse themselves in the environment, recognize specific architectural interventions, assess their effects and reiterate. It is a proposal for humanizing architecture, sympathizing its processes and personalizing its results for the users of any space. This article is part of the theme issue 'People, places, things, and communities: expanding behaviour settings theory in the twenty-first century'.

The impact of Biomimicry on sensory experience: an analysis of the relationship between human senses and nature in the design process in Architecture

The impact of Biomimicry on sensory experience: an analysis of the relationship between human senses and nature in the design process in Architecture

Managing Design Changes through Integrating Concurrent Engineering into the Architectural Design Process

Managing Design Changes through Integrating Concurrent Engineering into the Architectural Design Process

From virtual reality to virtual safaris: new form of participatory design in an architectural design project

ABSTRACT Virtual models have the potential to transform architectural design processes by introducing a novel form of participation of project stakeholders. With the concepts of material participation and digital materiality, this research shows how virtual models in meetings called ‘virtual safaris’ set up a space for participation by providing a tangible architectural demonstration. In virtual safaris, virtual models allow participants to imagine and co-design their experience in the future space instead of trying to interpret architectural plans, resulting in more detailed and concrete feedback. Based on observed virtual safaris and interviews, we categorised the participatory aspects of virtual models and safaris into technical features of the virtual models, experiential features of virtual safaris, and organising and arranging virtual safaris. We consider these categories as intertwined, specifying aspects of material participation. They highlight both the complexities of actual usage of virtual reality in co-design and the additional value of virtual safaris as a participatory setting. We conclude that ways of organising and arranging virtual safaris are central for achieving the transformation potential of virtual reality. We also highlight crucial aspects of meetings utilising virtual reality for practitioners and researchers in construction projects.