Vanuatu Research Articles

Tracking the marine migration routes of South Pacific silver eels.

Three catadromous Pacific eels (2 Anguilla marmorata, 1 A. megastoma) from the Archipelago of Vanuatu were tagged with pop-up satellite archival transmitters and their migration tracks towards their presumed spawning area approximately 870 km northeast of the point of release were reconstructed in order to evaluate their movements in relation to oceanographic conditions. We used the timing of diel vertical migrations to derive the eels' positions. Two A. marmorata exhibited steep-angled turns resulting in a zig-zag migration path along the east-west axis, while one A. megastoma took a relatively straight course towards the presumed spawning area. They migrated with a speed over ground of 21-23 km day-1. In this region, the eastward flow of the South Equatorial Counter Current (SECC, ∼ 5-10°S) separates the westward flowing South Equatorial Current (SEC; ∼0-5°S and 10-18°S) into two branches. During shallower nighttime migration depths around 150 m eels crossed a variable flow field through the southern branch of the westward SEC with westward propagating mesoscale eddies and the eastward SECC, but stayed south of the stronger northern branch of SEC possibly increasing retention time of larvae within this area. The eels headed towards a tongue of high-salinity Subtropical Underwater (STUW) that may have provided cues for orientation. The eels did not move beyond a salinity front of 35.9-36.0 at a depth of 100-200 m, which may have provided cues for orientation towards the spawning area. These 3 tracks may represent the movements of mature silver eels all the way to where they spawn.

A new species of cylindrical bark beetle (Zopheridae: Colydiinae) from Vanuatu establishes in Hawaii.

We describe Bulasconotus scaccarius sp. nov., a new species of cylindrical bark beetle (Zopheridae: Colydiinae: Synchitini), elevating the number of described species in its genus to two. Despite discovering this species in Hawaii, we suspect, based on collections and survey data, that it is endemic to the South Pacific archipelago of Vanuatu and has only recently arrived in Hawaii. Evidence of the diet of closely related genera indicates that the new species may be a predator of ambrosia beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae), conceivably posing a risk to those that are endemic to Hawaii.

Concrete Time: Material Temporalities and Contemporary Mobilities in the Vernacular Architecture of Northern Vanuatu, Melanesia

ABSTRACTIn the Melanesian archipelago of Vanuatu, the development of the Recognised Seasonal Employers schemes signed with New Zealand and Australia has recently increased people’s mobilities. While, previously, migrations occurred mainly between rural islands and the archipelago’s urban centres, Ni-Vanuatu people now frequently spend several months of the year working abroad. On the other hand, asserting a continuous presence on one’s land is also crucial in terms of social and spatial senses of belonging. On some rural islands, like Mere Lava in the northern part of the archipelago, this is largely negotiated through architecture. Material and social investments concerning place are then a matter of choice as much as of the resources available to people: should they invest in semi-permanent concrete and corrugated iron houses or rather rely upon local materials and customary technical processes? These questions are entangled with complex ideological understandings of the different buildings and grounded in the socio-histories of the places concerned. This paper explores these issues through a comparative analysis of various choices made by people with respect to both imported and local materials such as concrete, leaves, vines and wood. The aim is to contribute to an analysis of the role of vernacular architecture in the way people deal with the multiple and sometimes conflicting temporalities of contemporary lives and mobilities in Vanuatu.

A new coastal species of Pseuderanthemum (Acanthaceae) from Loyalty Islands (New Caledonia) and Vanuatu with notes on P. carruthersii

When dealing with the taxonomy of Pacific coastal species within the region of New Caledonia and Vanuatu, one should examine all names published in Australasia and other Pacific islands. When the putative new species is also closely related to a highly praised ornamental species with many cultigens and with many old horticultural names, the task becomes more arduous. This is the case for the new species we describe as Pseuderanthemum melanesicum Gâteblé, Ramon & Butaud, which is closely related to the now pantropical cultivated species P. carruthersii (Seem.) Guillaumin s.l. Compared to P. carruthersii, P. melanesicum has carnose and shiny leaves, pedicels and sepals covered with glandular hairs, a short and enlarged corolla tube and can produce fertile capsules. The new species is a coastal taxon occurring naturally in the Melanesian archipelagos of New Caledonia and Vanuatu. This species seems uncommon in the Loyalty Islands but more common in the archipelago of Vanuatu and we propose it as Critically Endangered in New Caledonia, Vulnerable in Vanuatu and Least Concern when the IUCN evaluation is done globally.

Palmitone as a potential species-specific biomarker for the crop plant taro (Colocasia esculenta Schott) on remote Pacific islands

The Pacific Island ecosystems of Remote Oceania were dramatically transformed following the arrival of humans within the last ∼3000 years, as the new settlers required technological innovations and environmental modifications to maintain their populations. These modifications included the introduction of numerous exotic species, including the important crop Colocasia esculenta Schott (taro) and the development of infrastructure suitable for its cultivation. Archaeological reconstruction of C. esculenta use in the Pacific has been challenging because of the low-specificity of fossil starch granules and its limited pollen production during periods of intense cultivation. Here, we assess a lipid biomarker approach to trace C. esculenta cultivation in the past. We characterized the neutral lipid compositions of leaf samples from common cultivars and widespread indigenous species from the archipelago of Vanuatu by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The compound palmitone (hentriacontan-16-one) was a major leaf wax constituent in C. esculenta cultivar samples (mean concentration of 402 ± 63 µg g–1 dry wt) and was only detected in one other species, the ornamental tree Cananga odorata (175 µg g–1 dry wt). The structure of palmitone is favorable for its long-term stability and we demonstrate its preservation potential in a 55 cm sedimentary record from Lake Vesalea on Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu, where C. esculenta is grown today. Palmitone concentrations in this core fluctuated up to 4.1 µg g–1 dry wt. Our results indicate that in appropriate environmental contexts, sedimentary palmitone concentrations could be used to reconstruct C. esculenta cultivation and to provide insights about past horticultural innovations in Remote Oceania.

Development of anthracnose resistant hybrids of the Greater Yam (Dioscorea alata L.) and interspecific hybrids with D. nummularia Lam.

Controlled pollinations were conducted to develop Dioscorea alata L. hybrids resistant to anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. Overall, 10,410 hand pollinations were carried out with Indian (IN) and Vanuatu (VU) clones in 53 different parental combinations, including diploids (2x) and tetraploids (4x) female and male plants. Pollination efficiency and seed set were comparable for IN2x × VU2x (54.6% and 23.0%) and IN2x × IN2x (57.4% and 28.9%). However, seedling survival with better resistance to anthracnose in nursery under natural disease pressure was higher for IN2x × IN2x (67.3%) compared to IN2x × VU2x (47.8%). IN2x female clones were crossed with VU2x and VU4x male clones in 12 parental combinations each. Pollination efficiency was higher for 2x parents (54.6%) compared to 4x parents (47.0%) but seed set (32.8%) and seedling survival (71.7%) were significantly higher for crosses between IN2x × VU4x. Overall, remarkable variation in pollination efficiency, seed set and seedling survival was observed between different parental combinations even when the same pollen parent was used. Interspecific hybridization between D. alata IN2x females and D. nummularia Lam. Vanuatu polyploid male was found to be successful with considerable variation in pollination efficiency, seed set and seedling survival (49.0, 20.8 and 35.3%). The hybrids exhibited intermediate characters between the two species with high tuber yield, anthracnose resistance but with fast tuber flesh oxidation. These results demonstrate the scope of polyploid and interspecific hybridization and the need for the international exchange of germplasm for D. alata genetic improvement.

“What the hell am I doing here?” - The rewards and challenges of volunteering in Vanuatu, and working towards the SDGs

“What the hell am I doing here?” - The rewards and challenges of volunteering in Vanuatu, and working towards the SDGs

Tracking subducted ridges through intermediate-depth seismicity in the Vanuatu subduction zone

The distribution of intermediate-depth seismicity beneath the Vanuatu archipelago (South Pacific Ocean) includes several seismic clusters/alignments and gaps, including a remarkable 200 × 150 km gap beneath central Vanuatu. We show that a zone of enhanced seismicity beneath this gap corresponds to the most likely trace of the subducted D’Entrecasteaux 12 S Ridge (DER), and that another region of aligned seismicity to the south may correspond to another signicant, now-disappeared ridge. We suggest that regions of aligned intermediate- depth seismicity beneath Vanuatu are traces of subducted oceanic features on the downgoing 14 S plate, probably caused by enhanced hydration beneath them prior to subduction. The seismic gap above the DER trace, previously interpreted as a tear in the slab, may instead be a region of reduced hydration due to thick/unfractured input crust, low bending of this crust before subduction, and/or greater slab residence time at shallower subducted depths, the latter two being directly related to DER collision. We propose that an uneven distribution of intermediate-depth seismicity at subduction zones may provide a window to the history and effects of subducted oceanic features.

High incidence of leptospirosis in an observational study of hospital outpatients in Vanuatu highlights the need for improved awareness and diagnostic capacities.

BackgroundEstimates of leptospirosis morbidity identified Oceania as the region with highest burden. Besides Australia and New Zealand, Oceania is home of Pacific Island Countries and Territories, most of which are developing countries facing a number of challenges. Their archipelago geography notably affects health infrastructure and access to healthcare. Although human leptospirosis was formerly identified in Vanuatu, there is a lack of knowledge of this disease in the country. We aimed to identify leptospirosis in outpatients visiting the hospital.Methodology/Principal findingsWe conducted a clinical study to investigate leptospirosis as a cause of non-malarial acute febrile illness in Vanuatu. A total 161 outpatients visiting the outpatient clinics at Port Vila Central Hospital for internal medicine were recruited over 20 month. We showed that leptospirosis significantly affects humans in Vanuatu: 12 cases were confirmed by real-time PCR on acute blood samples (n = 5) or by high serology titers evidencing a recent infection (MAT titer ≥800 or ELISA≥18 Units, n = 7). A high rate of positive serology was also evidenced, by MAT (100<titer<800, 9 patients) or ELISA IgM (ELISA≥12 Units, 20 patients, including 6 also positive in MAT), showing frequent exposure to pathogenic leptospires, notably from serogroup Australis.Conclusions/SignificanceThe high numbers of both seropositive patients and acute leptospirosis cases observed in outpatients visiting Port Vila Central Hospital suggest a high exposure to pathogenic Leptospira in the population studied. The MAT serology pointing to serogroup Australis as well as exposure history suggest that livestock animals largely contribute to the burden of human leptospirosis in Vanuatu. The analysis of residential and travel data suggests that the risk might even be higher in other islands of the Vanuatu archipelago. Altogether, our study emphasizes the need to increase awareness and build laboratory capacity to improve the medical care of leptospirosis in Vanuatu.

Kebijakan Luar Negeri Indonesia Terhadap Dukungan Republik Vanuatu Atas Kemerdekaan Papua Barat Tahun 2015-2016

Foreign policy stated by Indonesia related to the Republic ofVanuatu support for the Indenpendence of West Papua does not happennaturally. It is influenced by the facts and values that are had by theIndonesia that led to the perception and influences the decision ofmaking process. Indonesia stated that West Papua is a part of therepublic of Indonesia. Therefore, Indonesia states a foreign policy ofRepublic of Vanuatu regarding the support for the independence ofWest Papua. The result of this research indicates that there are someforeign policies of Indonesia against the Republic Vanuatu support forthe Independence of West Papua based on set of orientation, set ofcommitments and a group of behavior action. This research usesrealism approach, the concept of international politics, the concept offoreign policy, the concept of power, the concept of national interest, andthe concept of sovereignty that can explain the foreign policy ofIndonesia against the Republic Vanuatu support for the independenceof West Papua 2015-2016

Ephemeral and Localized Outbreaks of the Coral Predator Acanthaster cf. solaris in the Southwestern Lagoon of New Caledonia.

Mehdi Adjeroud, Mohsen Kayal, Christophe Peignon, Matthieu Juncker, Suzanne C. Mills, Ricardo Beldade, and Pascal Dumas (2018) Outbreaks of the coral predator Acanthaster spp., the crown-of-thorns seastar (COTS), cause major coral declines across the Indo-Pacific. However, the processes surrounding the initiation and propagation of COTS outbreaks are still unclear. We observed COTS outbreak abundances on several mid-shelf and inner-barrier reefs in the southern section of the New Caledonian lagoon, a multi-location initiation event that we expected to precede a broader region-wide disturbance. However, reef monitoring over 3 years revealed the highly localized and ephemeral character of these outbreaks. Outbreaks that were observed at four reef locations at the beginning of the survey simply faded away, without any specific management actions such as culling efforts. We also found no distinct reef biotope on which COTS outbreaks originated, although mid-shelf and inner-shelf barrier reefs seem to be favoured. New Caledonia has been exempted from to widespread regional COTS outbreaks, which is surprising given its proximity to the Australian Great Barrier Reef - a reef complex particularly vulnerable to COTS - and Vanuatu - where large-scale outbreaks were recorded during the same period. The availability of coral prey is probably not a limiting factor for the propagation of COTS outbreaks on New Caledonian reefs, given the high abundance and diversity of coral assemblages. Our findings reveal that localized and ephemeral COTS outbreaks can be naturally contained and do not necessarily result in widespread disturbances.

Possible diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) in a 3000-year-old Pacific Island skeletal assemblage

The Teouma skeletal assemblage represents a group of colonists from the earliest phase of the Vanuatu archipelago's prehistory. Previous examinations of the assemblage identified high levels of hyperostosis, which we investigate further here. Based on a differential diagnosis of conditions known to produce ectopic bone formation, we argue that the pattern of skeletal change is most consistent with diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) although we acknowledge that, given the preservation of the sample, it is difficult to distinguish DISH from other causes of hyperostosis with absolute certainty. In modern and bioarchaeological studies, DISH has been associated with metabolic disease and dietary practices. Based on previous stable isotopes analyses, it is thought that the Teouma people were heavily reliant on purine-rich marine resources and terrestrial animal protein, the type of diet thought to contribute to DISH development. We therefore compared dietary stable isotope values of groups of individuals with and without evidence for DISH. No significant relationships between DISH status and carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotope values were observed, suggesting that individual access to particular dietary resources was not the cause of DISH in those affected from Teouma, although the dietary constraints of the colonizing context may still have played an important role in the development of this condition for individuals otherwise predisposed to the disease. Individual predisposition may have been influenced by a propensity for hyperinsulinemia or hyperuricemia, brought about by the selective pressures of the colonization process. The high prevalence of hyperostosis and DISH in this skeletal assemblage may be evidence for a prehistoric variant of metabolic disease, which is observed at a high frequency in the Pacific today.

An Improved Reconstruction of Total Marine Fisheries Catches for the New Hebrides and the Republic of Vanuatu, 1950–2014

1. Abstract For many small island nations, fisheries provide residents with both food security and economic stability. However, in order to create effective and sustainable fisheries policies and management that will ensure a growing population can prosper, policy makers need to know what is being fished and how much is fished. Vanuatu, the smallest country in Melanesia, has a declared and claimed Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of over 820,000 km2 and fisheries resources play a large part in the food security and economic stability of this country. This reconstruction of total marine fisheries catch of Vanuatu for 1950 to 2014 faced major data gaps. It showed that the reconstructed total catches of nearly 1.4 million t were 40% higher than the 977,997 t reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) on behalf of Vanuatu for the same period. However, if large-scale industrial catches are excluded, the reconstructed small-scale fisheries catches (~ 270,000 t) were over 200% higher than the 114,862 t of reported catch that were assumed to represent the small-scale sector in FAO data. Subsistence catches made up almost 93% of small-scale catches, followed by artisanal and recreational catches with ~7% and less than 1%, respectively. By continuously improving the fisheries data of Vanuatu for both the past and the present, policy makers, stakeholders and fishers can make better decisions that will maintain the benefits of marine fishery resources.

Ancient tortoise hunting in the southwest Pacific.

We report the unprecedented Lapita exploitation and subsequent extinction of large megafauna tortoises (?Meiolania damelipi) on tropical islands during the late Holocene over a 281,000 km2 region of the southwest Pacific spanning from the Vanuatu archipelago to Viti Levu in Fiji. Zooarchaeological analyses have identified seven early archaeological sites with the remains of this distinctive hornless tortoise, unlike the Gondwanan horned meiolaniid radiation to the southwest. These large tortoise radiations in the Pacific may have contributed to the rapid dispersal of early mobile Neolithic hunters throughout southwest Melanesia and on to western Polynesia. Subsequent rapid extinctions of these terrestrial herbivorous megafauna are likely to have led to significant changes in ecosystems that help explain changes in current archaeological patterns from Post-Lapita contexts in the region.

Timing within the reproduction cycle modulates the efficiency of village-based crown-of-thorns starfish removal

In Pacific countries, outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci (COTS) raise increasing conservation concerns in areas where people heavily depend upon coral reefs for their livelihoods. Small-scale cleanups are often used in an attempt to regulate COTS densities, but their efficiency is challenged by knowledge gaps and the difficulty for the communities to frame their decisions in an ecological perspective. Here, we investigated COTS reproductive seasonality and its potential impact on removals. The spawning period of COTS was documented in two islands of the Vanuatu archipelago using the gonado-somatic index (GSI). Peak spawning occurred one month after the 28°C threshold was exceeded and was delayed by 2–3weeks with increasing latitude, theoretically allowing cleanups to be framed within the biological cycle. We demonstrated that subsampling of two/three arms per starfish provide GSI errors <1, a cost-effective strategy to document local spawning patterns. This approach was used during a major cleanup effort that took place during the spawning season, where fishermen removed COTS from a 3.8km fringing reef. The density drastically dropped from 518.8 to 66.7ind.ha−1 after participants extirpated >4 tons (13,000 starfish). At the end of the removals, GSI was reduced by half when compared to control areas, suggesting that traditional practices may under certain conditions trigger synchronized spawning. More effectively controlling COTS outbreaks will require teaching good ecological practices to avoid potential side-effects, a challenge in countries where a lack of knowledge on COTS does not really foster environmental concerns among local communities.

“By all means let us complete the exercise”: the 50‐year search for Lapita on Aneityum, southern Vanuatu and implications for other “gaps” in the Lapita distribution

ABSTRACTArchaeological research on the island of Aneityum, the southernmost inhabited island of the Vanuatu archipelago (the former New Hebrides), began in 1963 under the direction of Richard and Mary Shutler. It was soon after this that William Dickinson began analysing pottery sherds from various sites across the archipelago. He ultimately went on to study hundreds of samples, including – most recently – 112 from the site of Teouma on Efate Island. Early pottery sites remained elusive in the southern islands for two decades after the Shutlers’ pioneering work and on Aneityum for nearly 50 years. Assessments of the island's geomorphology, a key aspect regularly emphasised by Dickinson, coupled with perseverance and some serendipitous test‐pitting finally led to the discovery of a Lapita site on Aneityum. Dickinson's petrographic expertise was once again called on some 50 years after research first started on the island, to contribute to initial identification of the site's significance. We examine the difficulty of finding Lapita on Aneityum through a historical lens in order to reflect back on other presumed Lapita “gaps” that remain today, such as in much of the main Solomons’ chain and – with one current exception – in Samoa. Perhaps the gaps in other regions are not as extensive as is often argued.

Eruptive behavior of the Marum/Mbwelesu lava lake, Vanuatu and comparisons with lava lakes on Earth and Io

Observations from field remote sensing of the morphology, kinematics and temperature of the Marum/Mbwelesu lava lake in the Vanuatu archipelago in 2014 reveal a highly active, vigorously erupting lava lake. Active degassing and fountaining observed at the ~50m lava lake led to large areas of fully exposed lavas and rapid (~5m/s) movement of lava from the centers of upwelling outwards to the lake margins. These rapid lava speeds precluded the formation of thick crust; there was never more than 30% non-translucent crust. The lava lake was observed with several portable, handheld, low-cost, near-infrared imagers, all of which measured temperatures near 1000°C and one as high as 1022°C, consistent with basaltic temperatures. Fine-scale structure in the lava fountains and cooled crust was visible in the near infrared at ~5cm/pixel from 300m above the lake surface. The temperature distribution across the lake surface is much broader than at more quiescent lava lakes, peaking ~850°C, and is attributed to the highly exposed nature of the rapidly circulating lake. This lava lake has many characteristics in common with other active lava lakes, such as Erta Ale in Ethiopia, being confined, persistent and high-temperature; however it was much more active than is typical for Erta Ale, which often has >90% crust. Furthermore, it is a good analogue for the persistent, high-temperature lava lakes contained within volcanic depressions on Jupiter's moon Io, such as Pele, also believed from spacecraft and ground-based observations to exhibit similar behavior of gas emission, rapid overturn and fountaining.

Buveurs de Kava by Patricia Siméoni and Vincent Lebot (review)

Reviewed by: Buveurs de Kava by Patricia Siméoni and Vincent Lebot Knut Rio Buveurs de Kava, by Patricia Siméoni and Vincent Lebot. Port Vila: Éditions Geo-Consulte, 2014. isbn 978-2-9533362-3-8; 361 pages, maps, illustrations, figures, tables, index, bibliography. Cloth, us $189.99. At first glance, the format of Buveurs de Kava suggests a coffee-table publication—richly illustrated, glossy, big format, and broadly informative. It is thus a pleasant surprise to find that this turns out to be a book with a much larger ambition. The most comprehensive account of the kava plant and its cultural history to date, Buveurs de Kava draws together central cultural and historical materials for crucial aspects of Pacific history. Chapters take up kava’s history and prehistory, its diffusion among the islands of the Pacific, a detailed picture of the commercial role kava now plays in its recent spread to Australia and Europe, and debates on kava’s health benefits or use in medicine. In certain respects, the book is Vanuatucentric, but this follows from the book’s claim that Vanuatu has been the major center of domestication and export of the Piper methysticum plant throughout history. Many color photos from all over the Pacific beautifully demonstrate the centrality of the drink for the Pacific way of life. Moreover, Patricia Siméoni and Vincent Lebot also do their best for promoting a continuation of the enjoyment of this drink into the future. On the whole, their book constitutes an impressive synthesis of a century of research on “the Pacific drug.” The importance of kava as a cultural phenomenon was already outlined in W H R Rivers’s monumental [End Page 260] two-volume History of Melanesian Society (1914), and it is perhaps not coincidental that this new and important book is published in 2014, a hundred years later. This is thus a very timely publication. In the historical model developed by Rivers, the original inhabitants of the Melanesian islands, the so-called “betel people,” were colonized by an incoming “kava people” who practiced totemism, patrilineal descent, ranking rituals, a cult of the dead, and penis incision (see The Ethnographic Experiment: A M Hocart and W H R Rivers in Island Melanesia, 1908, edited by Edvard Hviding and Cato Berg, 2014). But the type of cultural historical analysis initiated by Rivers was rendered unfashionable shortly after the publication of his History. Surviving solely in the field of archaeology, cultural historical perspectives on the region of the Pacific have since been, with a few notable exceptions, separated from studies of contemporary culture and society. Buveurs de Kava is thus a key text since it ties back together an account of cultural history and the spread of the kava plant with contemporary culture and language in the Pacific. It explains in a lucid and still scientifically tenable fashion the way the “Kava People” have come to live in and transform the islands of Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia. Through sophisticated analysis of species classification and dendrograms (taxonomic tree diagrams), we learn of the multitude of species classed under the all-too-general label of “kava.” It is of historical interest to note that the variety classed as Piper wichmannii, for instance, prevalent in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, contains much less of the sought-after psycho-active ingredients called kavalactones. In the wichmannii type, there is only 3–5 percent of the kavalactone dihydromethysticin, while in the “real” kava type, methysticum, there is 8–20 percent of the kavalactone kavaine—making the latter variety, physiologically speaking, a much more potent drug. Through these types of observations, the authors make a good case for saying that the real, intensive domestication of the kava plant, as an effective means for inducing physical intoxication and as fully under the control of man, originally took place in Vanuatu. The eighty-three varieties of Piper methysticum that exist in Vanuatu, compared to the far lesser diversity in the rest of Melanesia and in Polynesia, also suggest the Vanuatu archipelago as the source for what we might call a cult of kava. Whereas one used to think that the kava plant was introduced to southern Vanuatu from...

The Legacy of the OECD's Harmful Tax Practices Initiative: Implications for Australia and Vanuatu

The Legacy of the OECD's Harmful Tax Practices Initiative: Implications for Australia and Vanuatu

PM 9/20 (1) Parthenium hysterophorus

PM 9/20 (1) <i>Parthenium hysterophorus</i>