Preservation Of Archaeological Sites Research Articles

How Bedrock‐Controlled Channel Migration Can Structure Selective Preservation of Archaeological Sites: Implications for Modeling Paleoindian Settlement

Although Paleoindian sites in Indiana, USA, are commonly located on late Wisconsin (Last Glacial Maximum) outwash terraces, drainage basin development since deglaciation often obscures the visibility of such sites on flood plains by either burying them under alluvium or destroying them through erosion. Significant clusters of Paleoindian and Early Archaic sites, however, have been identified proximal to the modern White River channel in central Indiana on what is mapped as “floodplain.” These site cluster locations are patterned. They typically occur within bedrock‐controlled river reaches but are rare along unconfined meandering reaches. Subsurface reconnaissance and chronology indicate that despite the fact that they often flood, portions of the so‐called flood plains within bedrock‐confined reaches are actually terraces constructed of late Wisconsin outwash with minimal overbank sedimentation. Terrace preservation in these settings is a result of bedrock structure that protects older sediments from lateral erosion and differentially preserves archaeological sites near the modern channel in bedrock‐controlled reaches. Comparisons of archaeological sites within bedrock‐controlled segments of the White River to those in unconfined meandering segments suggests that significant numbers of Paleoindian and Early Archaic sites may be missing from river settings across the midcontinent. These findings demonstrate that bedrock channel controls are important to recognize when assessing prehistoric settlement distributions.

On the challenges and benefits of indoor archaeology: 15 years at the Archeodome (Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village, South Dakota)

Field archaeology is normally associated with outdoor excavation and exposure to the natural environment. Archaeological excavations have adapted to a wide spectrum of these conditions, but the recent prominence of archaeological sites as tourist attractions and educational facilities has occasionally led to dramatically different environments for the archaeological recovery, interpretation, and preservation of evidence, including facilities that permit indoor excavation. This article explores 15 years of experience at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village in South Dakota. An “Archeodome” covering part of the site represents a non-traditional excavation and preservation environment that presents considerable benefits and challenges for archaeologists. The structure provides the basis for evaluating the nature of indoor excavation within its archaeological and educational context and provides a cautionary note for archaeologists, heritage groups, tourist boards, and others interested in the preservation of archaeological sites. Though this article focuses on the Mitchell site, the information reported has broad implications for sites where structures cover archaeological deposits.

A New Model for Coastal Resource Productivity and Sea‐Level Change: The Role of Physical Sedimentary Processes in Assessing the Archaeological Potential of Submerged Landscapes from the Northwest Australian Continental Shelf

Existing models of coastal occupation, in one form or another, embrace the assumption that changes in mean sea level were the prime driver for shifts in coastal resource productivity of consequence to coastal foragers. Focusing on the North West Shelf of Australia, this paper considers the role of physical sedimentary processes in understanding both past coastal resource productivity and the archaeology of drowned coastal landscapes. From a review of up‐to‐date literature on sea‐level related coastal formation process related to the North West Shelf, we describe the complex interplay of sea‐level change and sedimentary processes in determining (i) coastal resource availability, and (ii) archaeological site preservation potential through time. We argue that human behavioral models that have been linked solely to changes in sea level change from ca. 45 ka onward along the Australia continental shelf have inadequately accounted for local sedimentary regimes. It is not past sea‐level per se, which is of relevance to coastal productivity and human behavioral ecology models but changes in tidal regimes, coastal configurations and sedimentation. We conclude that our understanding of maritime adaptations for Sahul (Greater Australia) remain incomplete without investigating former coastlines and archaeological information that now lies submerged offshore.

Hominin Dispersal into the Nefud Desert and Middle Palaeolithic Settlement along the Jubbah Palaeolake, Northern Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula is a key region for understanding hominin dispersals and the effect of climate change on prehistoric demography, although little information on these topics is presently available owing to the poor preservation of archaeological sites in this desert environment. Here, we describe the discovery of three stratified and buried archaeological sites in the Nefud Desert, which includes the oldest dated occupation for the region. The stone tool assemblages are identified as a Middle Palaeolithic industry that includes Levallois manufacturing methods and the production of tools on flakes. Hominin occupations correspond with humid periods, particularly Marine Isotope Stages 7 and 5 of the Late Pleistocene. The Middle Palaeolithic occupations were situated along the Jubbah palaeolake-shores, in a grassland setting with some trees. Populations procured different raw materials across the lake region to manufacture stone tools, using the implements to process plants and animals. To reach the Jubbah palaeolake, Middle Palaeolithic populations travelled into the ameliorated Nefud Desert interior, possibly gaining access from multiple directions, either using routes from the north and west (the Levant and the Sinai), the north (the Mesopotamian plains and the Euphrates basin), or the east (the Persian Gulf). The Jubbah stone tool assemblages have their own suite of technological characters, but have types reminiscent of both African Middle Stone Age and Levantine Middle Palaeolithic industries. Comparative inter-regional analysis of core technology indicates morphological similarities with the Levantine Tabun C assemblage, associated with human fossils controversially identified as either Neanderthals or Homo sapiens.

Nydam Mose: In Situ Preservation at Work

The site of Nydam Mose saw the beginning of systematic research into in situ preservation of waterlogged archaeological sites on land at the National Museum of Denmark. In the past fifteen years a generic approach to in situ preservation of archaeological sites has been developed based on this research. This article is primarily a review of this generic approach, summarizing the methods and results with particular reference to the published results from the investigations in Nydam Mose.

Differential Temporal and Spatial Preservation of Archaeological Sites in a Great Lakes Coastal Zone

AbstractAnalysis of regional site taphonomy that incorporates depositional and postdepositional histories has become increasingly important in understanding the nature of preserved site populations and the strategies necessary for their discovery. We applied a systematic archival and field strategy directed at understanding such taphonomic processes in the coastal sand dunes of the northern and eastern Lake Michigan basin, and coupled these with a tactically directed program of OSL, 14C, and AMS dating. We demonstrate that long-term geological processes including lake level variation, episodic dune activation and stabilization, and the long-term effects of postglacial isostatic adjustments have markedly affected the potential for preservation of sites in coastal dune contexts over time and across subregions of the basin. Preservation potential for different time periods in coastal dunes is largely not synchronous with that of southern Michigan floodplains, posing substantial inferential problems. The archaeology of coastal dunes specifically, and coastal zones generally, must be used with extreme caution when cast against archaeological data from landforms with different formation processes and histories. While particularly true for the Great Lakes region, these results have implications for regional research broadly.

Reconstruction of local environments of ancient population in a changeable river valley landscape (The Middle Vychegda River, Northern Russia)

Abstract In river valleys, both human occupation and subsequent preservation of archaeological sites are affected by active landscape transformation caused by river lateral migration, incision/aggradation cycles and changes of river hydrological regime. In the middle Vychegda River valley (Northern Russia), there are numerous traces of human presence since the Mesolithic. We exploit multi-disciplinary archaeological, geomorphological and geochronological approach to elucidate the environmental preferences of settlements positioning during different epochs of the Holocene. High resolution space image supplemented with data on alluvial stratigraphy derived from bank exposures and hand cores, as well as 51 radiocarbon dates were used to make the geomorphic map showing ages of floodplain/terrace segments and palaeochannels. Using this map together with sediment facial interpretation, position of archaeological sites was analysed in the context of local geomorphic and hydrologic situation. The majority of archaeological sites and modern settlements are found on terraces at river banks or at oxbow lakes which were well connected to the river. Few exceptions from this rule may be explained by seasonal character of dwelling functioning, ritual burial practice or specialization of settlements. Geomorphic situation was used as a background for planning further prospection of different-age archaeological objects.

Arqueologia do baixo sul da Bahia: condicionantes espaciais na implantação de engenhos de açúcar

Os trabalhos de levantamento, prospecções e resgate de sítios arqueológicos ao longo do trecho da construção da BA-001, entre Itacaré e Camamu, permitiram o conhecimento de um considerávelnúmerode sítios de diversas tipologias. Ao longo dos cerca de 48,1 km foram abordados sítios rurais coloniais, indígenas de contacto, aldeias e, em especial, engenhos de açúcar. Dessa forma, de um montante de seis sítios desta última categoria foram extraídas informações e se pôde traçar um quadro acerca das transformações na implantação desse tipo de empreendimento mercantil. Um dos fatos relevantes sobressaltados da pesquisa de campo aponta para as formas de instalação ao longo do tempo. Confrontando os primeiros engenhos estabelecidos com os posteriores, nota-se claramenteo afastamentodaquelesem relação à orla, ao passo que os últimos preferencialmente assentaram-se na linha da maré, construindo, inclusive, cais para escoamento da produção.Pretendemoscom esse artigo, além de descrever os contextos, tentar compreender as motivações e condicionantes que levaram a tais diferenciações nas posturas de ocupação do mesmo território, por formas semelhantes de exploração do ambiente, indicando assim, como outros fatores locais e ideológicos conformam uma prática produtiva comercial comum à economia colonial.

Probing deeper into first American studies

The initial peopling of the Americas has proved one of the most challenging episodes in reconstructing global prehistory, challenging because researchers struggle with the vagaries of early archaeological site preservation, and debates continue over the date and place of human entry, the rapidity and direction of dispersion, and the variety of cultural responses to climatic change during the terminal Pleistocene period. Despite many recent advances in our understanding of these issues, especially in the areas of genetics and new archaeological discoveries, the field continues facing limitations in the sampling and quality of data, the research problems defined, and the epistemologies and theories applied. Theoretical development of first American studies has been uneven, and its contribution to global issues of early human migration has been restricted. This essay discusses what is known and not known about the process of the first peopling of the Americas from the perspective of archaeology, genetics, and bioanthropology. Some approaches to fill voids in data, methods, and the broader conceptualization of the process also are considered.

The Use and Deployment of Modern Wood Samples as a Proxy Indicator for Biogeochemical Processes on Archaeological Sites Preserved in situ in a Variety of Environments of Differing Saturation Level

In situ preservation of archaeological sites is becoming an ever increasing trend as a means of preserving our cultural heritage. In connection with this the environmental conditions, such as water level, dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH and water chemistry, of a site are often monitored. It is generally agreed that a waterlogged and anoxic environment is essential for optimal preservation conditions but the set-up and maintenance of an environmental monitoring programme can be costly.This paper discusses the design and use of a system whereby modern samples of wood can, with a minimal disturbance of the soil, easily be deployed and retrieved from archaeological sites. The system was deployed in an unsaturated environment, an environment with fluctuating water levels and a fully saturated peat bog. The samples were assessed after two years using microscopic, physical and molecular biological methods, and the types of wood-degrading organisms seen were compared with the results of environmental measurements. Modern wood samples were used, as the microbial ecology of wood-degrading organisms in these different types of environments is relatively well documented. Preliminary conclusions show that the deterioration processes of modern wood samples in these environments act as a good proxy indicator of the environmental conditions and biogeochemical processes ongoing at a site.

Application of sedimentary-structure interpretation to geoarchaeological investigations in the Colorado River Corridor, Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA

We present a detailed geoarchaeological study of landscape processes that affected prehistoric formation and modern preservation of archaeological sites in three areas of the Colorado River corridor in Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA. The methods used in this case study can be applied to any locality containing unaltered, non-pedogenic sediments and, thus, are particularly relevant to geoarchaeology in arid regions. Resolving the interaction of fluvial, aeolian, and local runoff processes in an arid-land river corridor is important because the archaeological record in arid lands tends to be concentrated along river corridors. This study uses sedimentary structures and particle-size distributions to interpret landscape processes; these methods are commonplace in sedimentology but prove also to be valuable, though less utilized, in geoarchaeology and geomorphology. In this bedrock canyon, the proportion of fluvial sediment generally decreases with distance away from the river as aeolian, slope-wash, colluvial, and debris-flow sediments become more dominant. We describe a new facies consisting of ‘flood couplets’ that include a lower, fine-grained fluvial component and an upper, coarser, unit that reflects subaerial reworking at the land surface between flood events. Grain-size distributions of strata that lack original sedimentary structures are useful within this river corridor to distinguish aeolian deposits from finer-grained fluvial deposits that pre-date the influence of the upstream Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River. Identification of past geomorphic settings is critical for understanding the history and preservation of archaeologically significant areas, and for determining the sensitivity of archaeological sites to dam operations. Most archaeological sites in the areas studied were formed on fluvial deposits, with aeolian deposition acting as an important preservation agent during the past millennium. Therefore, the absence of sediment-rich floods in this regulated river, which formerly deposited large fluvial sandbars from which aeolian sediment was derived, has substantially altered processes by which the prehistoric, inhabited landscape formed, and has also reduced the preservation potential of many significant cultural sites.

The Crucible of Early to Mid-Holocene Climate in Northern Alaska: Does Northern Archaic Represent the People of the Spreading Forest?

The Archaic stage was defined as a cultural response to post-Pleistocene landscapes dominated by trees. The Early Holocene produced an open landscape susceptible to colluviation, flooding, and gullying thus placing severe constraints on archaeological site preservation. The paleo-environment surrounding the development of the Northern Archaic can be reconstructed from pan-Alaska proxy records of flooding, loess fall, and soil formation at Onion Portage and Tingmiukpuk, and using a variety of studies of lake levels, glacial expansions, and slope activations, supplemented by loess and dune stratigraphy from the Tanana and Nenana valleys. The development of the Northern Archaic correlates with the retreat of the treeline, but may be inversely related to the development of peatland and forest landscapes at 7 kya in that the treeless Brooks Range attracted Archaic peoples north as the sphagnum peatland developed in the interior.

The use of geosynthetics for archaeological site reburial

Applications of geosynthetic materials in reburial practice include geotextiles for separation, filtration and protection (cushioning); geomembranes and geosynthetic clay liners for infiltration control; geonets and geocomposites for sub-surface drainage; and geocells for erosion control. Mechanically stabilized earth reinforcement using geocells, geogrids and geotextiles can also provide substantial benefits for reburial projects by reducing lateral earth pressure against backfilled structures. Other aspects of modern geotechnology that may be useful for reburial projects include micro-piles and soil nailing for foundation and excavation support and evapotranspirative capping technology to establish the depth of soil cover required to isolate a structure or artefact from moisture and temperature fluctuations. Optimal application of these geotechnologies requires an understanding of the basic engineering principles associated with their implementation, as well as knowledge of the factors influencing archaeological site preservation.

Rock art conservation in Morocco

The state of preservation of archaeological sites in Southern Morocco is discussed, with particular reference to rock art sites. While the archaeological community is aware of the scale of the damage (both natural and anthropic) to archaeological sites in the central Sahara, the deterioration of Moroccan cultural heritage is still largely unreported. In May 2002, a survey of some rock art sites in the pre-Saharan Morocco, in the Jebel Sarhro, revealed the gravity and extent of the destruction, caused mainly by looting, vandalism and re-utilisation of archaeological material. Many of the activities detrimental to the rock art can be understood if read into their socio-economic context. Pre-Saharan Morocco is poor and suffers from progressive desertification; the traffic in cultural objects represents one of the few available revenue sources. As a consequence, rock art and other cultural artefacts are systematically looted and sold to private art collectors and tourists. Apart from the scientific damage, this impoverishes the local population, which will lose a great cultural patrimony upon which they could potentially build a sustainable tourism industry. The suitability of management strategies for archaeological sites will also be re-examined, in the light of the actual needs of the local communities. This means defining the role of archaeologists (and other outsiders) in the decision-making process. The dilemma is whether we should consider certain activities – the addition of new engravings to rock art sites or the reutilization of decorated boulders for the construction of water basins – as harmless or detrimental. Do Western values entitle archaeologists to force their management plans on local communities? In this perspective, the paper reports damage done to several engravings by an archaeological team making moulds. What should archaeologists be allowed to do in the name of science and conservation?

Eolian processes, ground cover, and the archaeology of coastal dunes: A taphonomic case study from San Miguel Island, California, U.S.A.

AbstractGeomorphological evidence and historical wind records indicate that eolian processes have heavily influenced San Miguel Island environments for much of the Late Quaternary. The island is almost constantly bombarded by prevailing northwesterly winds, with peak velocities exceeding 75 km/h and wind gusts reaching over 100 km/h. These strong winds played an important role in the location, formation, and preservation of the island's more than 600 archaeological sites. Excavation and surface collection at a stratified Middle and Late Holocene archaeological site on the island's north coast suggest that wind related disturbances result in significant displacement of light fish bones, produce concentrations of shellfish and heavy mammal bones, and cause significant abrasion, etching, and polishing of bones, shells, and artifacts. These data illustrate that wind not only alters surface materials but can significantly disturb subsurface deposits to a depth of at least 20 cm. Working in concert with a variety of taphonomic processes, wind can play a fundamental role in the preservation of archaeological sites and careful scrutiny during excavation and laboratory analysis is required to delineate its effects. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Cultural Knowledge and the Cognitive Map

Cultural preservation requires that the practices as well as the objects of culture be preserved. Too often, this is overlooked in the preservation of archaeological sites, historic buildings, and traditional cultural properties. As discussed in the articles in this issue, Native American cultures are recognized for their special ties to specific places. Traditionally, American Indians developed an understanding of their environments through regular use of these places and their resources. My work as an applied anthropologist brings me into regular contact with Native Americans, doing natural resource projects and facilitating interactions among tribes and U.S. Federal agencies. Much of my work is done in collaboration with tribes as they play more active roles in decision making about their traditional lands and natural resources, both on and off their reservations.

A Geoarchaeological Assessment Of Bison Kill Site Preservation In The Little Missouri Badlands

This paper investigates the relationship between geomorphic processes and the preservation and interpretation of bison procurement localities in the Little Missouri Badlands of western North Dakota. Known archaeological data pertaining to bison procurement are examined within the context of the late Quaternary stratigraphic and geomorphic history of the badlands. Viewed from a geoarchaeological context, the spatial and temporal distributions of bison kill sites appear to be products of the geomorphic history of those landforms most frequently used for bison procurement. These landforms tend to be highly dynamic and therefore not suitable for archaeological site preservation on broad temporal and spatial scales.

Reducing the effects of heavy equipment compaction through in situ archaeological site preservation

Salvage archaeology in anticipation of destruction is an accepted response to a site in the way of a pipe-line or other development. But is it right in principle? — a ‘full and fair’ record is not quite the same as survival of the actual site. And if techniques to protect a site during construction work are well designed, may they not also be cheaper?

A time‐space model for the distribution of shoreline archaeological sites in the lake superior basin

AbstractArchaeological site interpretation can be enhanced by consideration of related geological and geomorphological processes. Lake Superior has a history of glaciation, isostatic recovery, and water‐level change. Two examples are given of shoreline sites at which interpretation is enhanced by an understanding of local geologic factors. The archaeologic history of the Lake Superior basin is reviewed, and three cultural traditions are recognized; (1) Paleoindian, (2) Archaic, and (3) Woodland. Three significant factors of geologic history are then discussed: (1) ice margin oscillation, (2) differential isostatic uplift, and (3) lake‐level fluctuations. The factors reducing or improving shoreline archaeological site preservation are examined, and a summary model of shoreline site distribution for the Lake Superior basin is offered. It is concluded that the north shore provides the best potential for a complete archaeological record. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Archaeological Site Preservation Techniques: A Preliminary Review. Robert M. Thorne, Patricia M. Fay, and James J. Hester. Department of the Army, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Impact Research Program, Technical Report EL-87-3. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, 1987. 76 pp., figures, appendices, references. No price given (paper).

Archaeological Site Preservation Techniques: A Preliminary Review. Robert M. Thorne, Patricia M. Fay, and James J. Hester. Department of the Army, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Impact Research Program, Technical Report EL-87-3. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, 1987. 76 pp., figures, appendices, references. No price given (paper). - Volume 54 Issue 4