Archaeological Populations Research Articles

Biocultural Consequences of Spanish Contact in the Lambayeque Valley Region of Northern Peru: Internal Enamel Micro‐Defects as Indicators of Early Life Stress

AbstractThe present study utilises dental histological methods to analyse enamel micro‐defects as indicators of early life stress in indigenous Muchik individuals interred at two sites: La Capilla Santa María Magdalena de Eten (CSMME) (n = 15) and La Capilla del Niño Serranito (CNS) (n = 15), both located in the Lambayeque Valley region of northern Peru. Individuals interred at CNS date to the Early Colonial Period (AD 1533–1610), and individuals interred at CSMME date to the Middle/Late Colonial Period (AD 1625–1760), thus permitting comparison of childhood stress events between the Early and Middle/Late Colonial Periods. Results reveal a high prevalence of Wilson bands at both sites, although a lower prevalence at the CSMME was observed in comparison with the CNS. This indicates that, over time, Muchik individuals in this town may have been able to acclimate to life under Spanish oppression. Stress chronologies suggest that early life stress possibly resulted from inadequate and less than desirable food and/or water available for supplemental feeding during early infancy, especially around the ages of 4 and 5 months. Furthermore, results show that individuals with enamel defects in the form of Wilson bands at both the CNS and CSMME had an earlier mean age‐at‐death (9.6 and 4.05 years, respectively) in comparison with those without observed Wilson bands (19.75 and 8.8 years, respectively). These results underscore the importance of not only regional and temporal studies of the biological consequences of Spanish contact in the Americas but also of investigating the relationship between early life stress and adult health and longevity in archaeological populations. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A method for estimating age of medieval sub-adults from infancy to adulthood based on long bone length.

To develop a series of regression equations for estimating age from length of long bones for archaeological sub-adults when aging from dental development cannot be performed. Further, to compare derived ages when using these regression equations, and two other methods. A total of 183 skeletal sub-adults from the Danish medieval period, were aged from radiographic images. Linear regression formulae were then produced for individual bones. Age was then estimated from the femur length using three different methods: equations developed in this study, data based on a modern population (Maresh: Human growth and development (1970) pp 155-200), and, lastly, based on archeological data with known ages (Rissech et al.: Forensic Sci Int 180 (2008) 1-9). As growth of long bones is known to be non-linear it was tested if the regression model could be improved by applying a quadratic model. Comparison between estimated ages revealed that the modern data result in lower estimated ages when compared to the Danish regression equations. The estimated ages using the Danish regression equations and the regression equations developed by Rissech et al. (Forensic Sci Int 180 (2007) 1-9) were very similar, if not identical. This indicates that the growth between the two archaeological populations is not that dissimilar. This would suggest that the regression equations developed in this study may potentially be applied to archaeological material outside Denmark as well as later than the medieval period, although this would require further testing. The quadratic equations are suggested to yield more accurate ages then using simply linear regression equations.

A bioarchaeological study of osteoarthritis among populations of northern China and Mongolia during the Bronze Age to Iron Age transition to nomadic pastoralism

This paper examines data on joint disease among archaeological populations of several sites within northern China and Mongolia to test hypotheses about cultural uniformity among pastoralists and potential changes in the levels and types of activities during the Bronze Age to early Iron Age transition from mixed economies to mounted pastoralism. Despite continuing debate on the etiology of osteoarthritis, there is general consensus that joint use is an important contributor to joint disease. The vertebrae and major limb joints (shoulder, elbow, wrist/hand, hip, knee, and ankle/foot) of adult samples from these two periods were analyzed for prevalence and patterns of joint disease with respect to sex, age, time period, and location. There were only two joint regions with a significant difference between males and females: at the elbow, where males had a higher prevalence, and at the hip, where it was higher among females. The findings indicated a positive relationship between age and osteoarthritis, and that the spine was one of the most affected areas, along with the elbow and knee. Between the two time periods, while not at the level of significance, there was a pattern of higher prevalence of osteoarthritis in the vertebrae and upper limb joints among the Iron Age sample, while the Bronze Age sample had higher rates within the lower limb joints. These findings suggest different mechanical stresses between the two periods, perhaps associated with changes from mobility by foot in the Bronze Age to increased mounted mobility during the Iron Age, including mounted warfare. However, when comparing the individual sites within the two periods and within geographic regions, there was no distinct pattern, as there was much variation within both the Bronze Age and the Iron Age sites, as well as within regions. These varied results among sites and regions suggest that were was no uniform pastoral way of life or movement that imprinted clear patterns of osteoarthritis among pastoral samples. Instead, these data suggest that varied activities, movements, and perhaps mixed economic practices and workload among the sexes may have been characteristic among the “pastoral” groups of the Inner Asian steppe.

Isotopic evidence (C, N, S) for a high aquatic dietary contribution for a Pre-Dorset muskox hunter from Umingmak (Banks Island, Canada)

The isotopic investigation (δ13C, δ15N, δ34S) of bone collagen from the human remains and coeval fauna from Umingmak (Banks Island, N.W.T., Canada) provide a unique opportunity to decipher the palaeodietary habits of some of the first inhabitants of the Arctic, almost 5000years ago. By comparison with other ancient humans from northern Canada and Greenland, the diet of the Umingmak individual included more terrestrial food items, although marine food was dominant. Based on a Bayesian model, the estimation of the contribution of terrestrial and freshwater food appeared higher when considering three isotopic tracers (C, N, S) instead of the sole C and N tracers. This illustrates the utility of having sulphur as an additional isotopic dietary tracer in arctic archaeological contexts. The palaeodietary conclusions are consistent with a subsistence strategy involving the seasonal exploitation of different resources available at different times of the year and in different areas. The higher terrestrial dietary contribution for the Umingmak human than for other Arctic archaeological populations could be due to a relatively richer terrestrial environment in Banks Island than in other areas.

Perikymata numbers and enamel extension rates in the incisors of three archaeological modern human populations from two caves located in Spain: Maltravieso Cave (Cáceres) and Mirador Cave (Burgos)

Abstract A number of authors have studied the variability of total perikymata counts on permanent incisors in different modern human populations, finding that some populations show a significantly lower number of perikymata than others. However, little is known about the overall variability of these traits in archaeological populations of modern humans. Our aim was to broaden the available data on total perikymata counts on incisors, and to further discuss enamel extension rate variability in modern human incisors. Our sample consisted of 15 incisors from three different archaeological populations belonging to the Holocene: two populations from Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) assigned to two different chronological periods, and a population from Maltravieso Cave (Caceres). We refer to these populations as the MTV–MIR sample. Perikymata were counted from several images obtained using an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). Our results suggest the total number of perikymata of the MTV–MIR incisors fall most comfortably within the distribution of counts reported for modern Europeans and Inuit rather than those representing southern African samples of incisors. Furthermore, the percentage of the perikymata numbers in the last five deciles into which the crowns were divided (the cervical half) did not show statistically significant differences when compared to the other modern human populations. This suggests that enamel extension rates among modern human incisors share a common pattern, which might differ from that present in other species. More data from other modern and archaeological sub-Saharan African samples are needed to test whether low perikymata counts are exclusive to the southern African group or are indeed truly representative of sub-Saharan African populations as a whole today and in the past.

The use of non-adult vertebral dimensions as indicators of growth disruption and non-specific health stress in skeletal populations.

ABSTRACTObjectiveTraditional methods of detecting growth disruption have focused on deficiencies in the diaphyseal length of the long bones. This study proposes the implementation of vertebral measurements (body height and transverse diameter of the neural canal) from non‐adults (0–17 years) as a new methodology for the identification of growth disruption.MethodsMeasurements of vertebral body height and transverse diameter were taken from 96 non‐adult skeletons and 40 adult skeletons from two post‐medieval sites in England (Bow Baptist, London and Coronation Street, South Shields). Non‐adult measurements were plotted against dental age to construct vertebral growth profiles through which inter‐population comparisons could be made.ResultsResults demonstrated that both sites experienced some growth retardation in infancy, evident as deficiencies in transverse diameter. However, analysis of vertebral body height revealed different chronologies of growth disruption between the sites, with a later age of attainment of skeletal maturity recorded in the Bow Baptist sample.DiscussionThese vertebral dimensions undergo cessation of growth at different ages, with transverse diameter being “locked‐in” by ∼1–2 years of age, while vertebral body height may continue to grow into early adulthood. These measurements can therefore provide complementary information regarding the timing of growth disruption within archaeological populations. Non‐adult vertebral measurements can increase our osteobiographical understanding of the timings of episodes of health stress, and allow for the analysis of growth when other skeletal elements are fragmentary. Am J Phys Anthropol 158:155–164, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

An Exceptional Case of Healed Vertebral Wound with Trapped Bronze Arrowhead: Analysis of a 7th–6th c. bc Individual from Central Kazakhstan

AbstractProjectile injury caused by an arrow shot is a common skeletal marker of interpersonal violence in archaeological populations. The injuries of the spine were usually fatal. Only few reports on healing of the vertebra pierced by flint arrowpoint can be found in bioarchaeological literature. This paper presents an exceptional case of a healed trapped bronze arrowhead wound in the spine of a 7th–6th c. bc elite nomad from Central Kazakhstan. Computed radiography and tomography as well non‐destructive X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry provide detailed information about the context and mechanism of the injury. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Bilateral scapular fracture in a likely case of assault from Mediaeval Ipswich, England

It has recently been proposed that bilateral scapular fracture in archaeological populations may be an indicator of assault by beating (Blondiaux et al., 2012). This proposal, whilst plausible, lacked empirical support. This article provides some empirical evidence in support of this suggestion. It describes a case of bilateral scapular fracture in a Mediaeval burial where there is independent evidence that the individual suffered beating by a mob.

Inferring Human Behaviors from Isotopic Analyses of Rat Diet: a Critical Review and Historical Application

Rat (Rattus spp.) bone collagen stable isotope values are often assumed to reflect an average of food stuffs that were available to archaeological populations. This paper considers the feasibility of using stable isotope evidence from rat remains as a source of proxy information for human food-related social, economic, and sensorial behaviors. First, a literature review of archaeological and modern ecological rat isotope work reveals that, while rat dietary signatures are often a reasonable proxy for human food waste, they will not always record an unbiased average of foods which are available in a given environment. Second, an overview of ethological, biological, and environmental factors that can influence rat diets is given from the perspective of archaeological bone chemistry, to help identify factors that require explicit and critical consideration when rat stable isotope data is taken as a proxy for human food-related behaviors. Finally, rat stable isotope values are considered to provide new evidence about the social and economic responses of an important historical English fishing community at Ferryland (CgAf-02) to conflict and political turmoil at the turn of the eighteenth century. These results also highlight how information on rat diets can provide a counterpoint to other common faunal isotope approaches that focus on dogs and pigs as a proxy for human dietary behaviors.

Multiple Cases with Probable Treponemal Infection from 16th to 19th Centuries Romania

AbstractIn this paper, we describe pathological lesions identified in seven skeletons discovered in the Saint Sava necropolis in Bucharest, Romania, dating to the Late Medieval/Early Modern period. The pathological changes observed in the skeletons were analysed using macroscopic examination. Additionally, computed tomography scanning was performed on two individuals displaying advanced lesions on the cranial surface. For the differential diagnosis, we took into consideration treponemal infection, tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, leprosy, fluorosis, melorheostosis, hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy, Paget's disease and mycotic infection, along with the possibility of multiple afflictions occurring simultaneously. The morphology and distribution of the lesions are suggestive of treponematosis, which, to our knowledge, makes this the first case of this disease on the Romanian territory in archaeological populations. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Accentuated lines in the enamel of primary incisors from skeletal remains: A contribution to the explanation of early childhood mortality in a medieval population from Poland

Physiological disruptions resulting from an impoverished environment during the first years of life are of key importance for the health and biological status of individuals and populations. Studies of growth processes in archaeological populations point to the fact that the main causes of childhood mortality in the past are to be sought among extrinsic factors. Based on this assumption, one would expect random mortality of children, with the deceased individuals representing the entire subadult population. The purpose of this study is to explore whether differences in early childhood survival are reflected in differences in deciduous tooth enamel, which can provide an insight into the development of an individual during prenatal and perinatal ontogeny. Deciduous incisors were taken from 83 individuals aged 2.0-6.5 years from a medieval inhumation cemetery dated AD 1300-1600. Prenatal and postnatal enamel formation time, neonatal line width, and the number of accentuated lines were measured using an optical microscope. The significantly wider neonatal line and the higher frequency of accentuated lines in the enamel of the incisors of children who died at the age of 2-3 years suggest the occurrence of stronger or more frequent stress events in this group. These results indicate that in skeletal populations mortality was not exclusively determined by random external factors. Individuals predisposed by an unfavorable course of prenatal and perinatal growth were more likely to die in early childhood.

Do nuclear DNA and dental nonmetric data produce similar reconstructions of regional population history? An example from modern coastal Kenya.

This study investigates whether variants in dental morphology and nuclear DNA provide similar patterns of intergroup affinity among regional populations using biological distance (biodistance) estimates. Many biodistance studies of archaeological populations use skeletal variants in lieu of ancient DNA, based on the widely accepted assumption of a strong correlation between phenetic- and genetic-based affinities. Within studies of dental morphology, this assumption has been well supported by research on a global scale but remains unconfirmed at a more geographically restricted scale. Paired genetic (42 microsatellite loci) and dental (nine crown morphology traits) data were collected from 295 individuals among four contemporary Kenyan populations, two of which are known ethnically as "Swahili" and two as "Taita;" all have well-documented population histories. The results indicate that biodistances based on genetic data are correlated with those obtained from dental morphology. Specifically, both distance matrices indicate that the closest affinities are between population samples within each ethnic group. Both also identify greater divergence among samples from the different ethnic groups. However, for this particular study the genetic data may provide finer resolution at detecting overall among-population relationships.

Oxygen isotope analysis of human bone phosphate evidences weaning age in archaeological populations.

Here we report bone phosphate oxygen (δ(18)Op) values from perinates/neonates and infants (<3.5 years; n = 32); children (4-12 years; n = 12); unsexed juveniles (16-18 years; n = 2); and adult bones (n = 17) from Wharram Percy, North Yorkshire, England, in order to explore the potential of this method to investigate patterns of past breastfeeding and weaning. In prior studies, δ(15)N and δ(13)C analyses of bone collagen have been utilized to explore weaning age in this large and well-studied assemblage, rendering this material highly appropriate for the testing and development of this alternative method targeting the inorganic phase of bone. Data produced reveal (18)O-enrichment in the youngest perinatal/neonatal and infant samples, and an association between age and bone δ(18)Op (and previously-published δ(15)N values), with high values in both these isotope systems likely due to breastfeeding. After the age of 2-3 years, δ(18)Op values are lower, and all children between the ages of 4 and 12, along with the vast majority of sub-adults and adults sampled (aged 16 to >50 years), have δ(18)Op values consistent with the consumption of local modern drinking water. The implications of this study for the reconstruction of weaning practices in archaeological populations are discussed, including variations observed with bone δ(15)Ncoll and δ(18)Op co-analysis and the influence of culturally-modified drinking water and seasonality. The use of this method to explore human mobility and palaeoclimatic conditions are also discussed with reference to the data presented.

Incongruity between Affinity Patterns Based on Mandibular and Lower Dental Dimensions following the Transition to Agriculture in the Near East, Anatolia and Europe

While it has been suggested that malocclusion is linked with urbanisation, it remains unclear as to whether its high prevalence began 8,000 years earlier concomitant with the transition to agriculture. Here we investigate the extent to which patterns of affinity (i.e., among-population distances), based on mandibular form and dental dimensions, respectively, match across Epipalaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic samples from the Near East/Anatolia and Europe. Analyses were conducted using morphological distance matrices reflecting dental and mandibular form for the same 292 individuals across 21 archaeological populations. Thereafter, statistical analyses were undertaken on four sample aggregates defined on the basis of their subsistence strategy, geography, and chronology to test for potential differences in dental and mandibular form across and within groups. Results show a clear separation based on mandibular morphology between European hunter-gatherers, European farmers, and Near Eastern transitional farmers and semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers. In contrast, the dental dimensions show no such pattern and no clear association between the position of samples and their temporal or geographic attributes. Although later farming groups have, on average, smaller teeth and mandibles, shape analyses show that the mandibles of farmers are not simply size-reduced versions of earlier hunter-gatherer mandibles. Instead, it appears that mandibular form underwent a complex series of shape changes commensurate with the transition to agriculture that are not reflected in affinity patterns based on dental dimensions. In the case of hunter-gatherers there is a correlation between inter-individual mandibular and dental distances, suggesting an equilibrium between these two closely associated morphological units. However, in the case of semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers and farming groups, no such correlation was found, suggesting that the incongruity between dental and mandibular form began with the shift towards sedentism and agricultural subsistence practices in the core region of the Near East and Anatolia.

The applicability of the Lamendin method to skeletal remains buried for a 16-year period: a cautionary note.

The Lamendin method is widely reported as one of the most reliable means of age estimation of skeletal remains, but very little is known concerning the influence of burial in soil. This study aimed at verifying the reliability of the Lamendin method on corpses buried for 16 years in a cemetery. The Lamendin and the Prince and Ubelaker methods were applied. In all age groups except the 40- to 49-year-olds, the error was higher in the buried sample. The age-at-death error ranged between 10.7 and 36.8 years for the Lamendin method (vs. the reported 7.3-18.9 years) and 9.5 and 35.7 for the Prince and Ubelaker one (vs. the original 5.2-32.6 years); in all age groups, the error is closer to that found on archeological populations. These results suggest caution in applying the Lamendin method to forensic cases of human remains buried even for a brief period under soil.

A re-evaluation of the impact of radiographic orientation on the identification and interpretation of Harris lines.

The identification of Harris lines through radiographic analysis has been well-established since their discovery in the late nineteenth century. Most commonly associated with stress, the study of Harris lines has been fraught with inconsistent identification standards, high levels of intra- and interobserver error, and the inevitability of skeletal remodelling. Despite these methodological challenges, the use of Harris lines remains an important contributor to studies of health in archaeological populations. This research explores the radiographic process, specifically orientation and how Harris lines are initially captured for study. Using the Black Friars (13th-mid 17th centuries) skeletal sample from Denmark, 157 individuals (134 adults; 23 subadults) were radiographically analyzed in both an anterior-posterior (A-P) and medial-lateral (M-L) view for the left and right radii and tibiae. Based on the current methodological standards within the literature, it was hypothesized that the A-P view would provide the best resolution and visualization of Harris lines. The results, however, show that the number of lines visible in the M-L view were significantly higher than those visible in the A-P view; inferring that the M-L view is superior for the study of Harris lines.

Odontometric sex estimation on three populations of the Iron Age from Abruzzo region (central–southern Italy)

BackgroundIn archaeological contexts, sex identification is a necessary step for a complete reconstruction of the biological profile of the individuals and to know demographic patterns of the population, nutritional stress, diseases, growth and development, and distribution of pathological conditions. MethodsThis study is based on the skeletal remains of 149 individuals from three protohistoric populations in close temporal and geographic proximity in Abruzzo region (central–southern Italy): Opi, Alfedena and Bazzano. It has been possible to develop logistic regression equations based on dental measurements of permanent teeth of adult individuals whose sex had previously been estimated based on pelvic and cranial features. These equations were subsequently applied to the permanent dentition of immature individuals and adult individuals whose sex was estimated as uncertain or unknown in order to estimate their sex. ResultsThe mandibular canine is the tooth with the greatest sexual dimorphism in adults, followed by both maxillary and mandibular first and second molars, providing a correct assignment of sex ranging from 83.7% and 95.9% of cases, depending on the dimensions used for the construction of these equations. Of the 29 individuals in the target sample (14 adultus, 10 juvenilis and 5 infans), sex estimation was possible for 23 (10 adultus, 8 juvenilis and 5 infans), representing an applicability rate of 79.31% of the individuals. ConclusionsThe results indicate that odontometrics is a useful tool for sex estimation and allows to increase the data to perform more complete paleodemographic studies on archaeological populations.

To swaddle, or not to swaddle? paleoepidemiology of developmental dysplasia of the hip and the swaddling dilemma among the indigenous populations of North America

Clinical prevalence of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is high among modern indigenous populations of North America, yet no systematic study of the paleoepidemiology of this group exists. This study discusses the skeletal criteria, epidemiology, pathophysiology, and risk factors of DDH. A range of cases of DDH from an archaeological Native American population are described and the clinical and prehistoric prevalence of DDH among indigenous populations of North America are calculated and discussed within a biocultural perspective. Pelves of 390 adults from the Late Prehistoric (1490 B.P. ± 70) Buffalo site, West Virginia, were examined for DDH. Morphology of true and false acetabula was classified and other changes of the pelvis, lower limb, and spine were noted along with cranial deformation, providing evidence of infant restriction. Prevalence of DDH among living and archaeological indigenous peoples of North America were calculated and compared. Cranial deformation was assessed as evidence for swaddling. DDH was identified in 18 adults from Buffalo, resulting in a minimum prevalence of 46.15 per 1,000, within the range reported in modern indigenous groups in North America. Most, but not all, of the DDH cases were associated with cranial deformation, but not all cases of cranial deformation were associated with DDH. The etiology of DDH suggests that components of both genetic predisposition and swaddling practices have combined to create a high-risk environment for the development of DDH, contributing to high prevalence within archaeological populations, like Buffalo, and modern Indigenous groups of North America.

Effects of caloric restriction on nitrogen and carbon stable isotope ratios in adult rat bone.

Stable isotope analysis is a valuable technique for dietary estimation in ecological and archaeological research, yet many variables can potentially affect tissue stable isotope signatures. Controlled feeding studies across a range of species have consistently demonstrated impacts of caloric restriction on tissue stable isotope ratios, but most have focused on juvenile, fasting, and/or starving individuals, and most have utilized soft tissues despite the importance of bone for paleodietary analyses. The goal of this study was to determine whether temporally defined, moderate food restriction could affect stable carbon and/or nitrogen isotope ratios in adult mammalian bone - a tissue that arguably reflects long-term dietary signals. Adult rats fed a standard laboratory diet were restricted to 45% of ad libitum intakes for 3 or 6 months. Relevant anatomical and physiological parameters were measured to confirm that the restriction protocol resulted in significant nutritional stress and to provide independent data to facilitate interpretation of stable isotope ratios. Femoral bone δ(13)Ccollagen, δ(15)Ncollagen, and δ(13)Capatite values were determined by isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Calorie-restricted animals exhibited a small, yet significant enrichment in (15)Ncollagen compared with control animals, reflecting protein-calorie stress. While the δ(13)Ccollagen values did not differ, the δ(13)Capatite values revealed less enrichment in (13)C than in controls, reflecting catabolism of body fat. Independent anatomical and physiological data from these same individuals support these interpretations. Results indicate that moderate caloric restriction does not appreciably undermine broad interpretations of dietary signals in adult mammalian bone. Significant variability among individuals or groups, however, is best explained by marked differences in energy intake over variable timescales. An inverse relationship between the δ(13)Capatite and δ(15)Ncollagen values observed in this study indicates that a more robust pattern is expected with more severe or prolonged restriction and suggests this pattern may have utility as a marker of food deprivation in archaeological populations.

Wear on the deciduous molars in a Mediaeval English human population: a study using crown height

This work comprises a study of mandibular deciduous molar wear in an archaeological population using measurement of crown height. The aims are twofold. Firstly, to investigate the nature of the relationship between wear on the deciduous molars and dental age. Secondly, to evaluate, using crown height, two existing methods of recording deciduous molar wear: the measurement of the percent of the occlusal surface made up of exposed dentine described by Clement and Freyne (2012), and the ordinal wear stage method of Dawson and Robson Brown (2013). The study material is immature skeletal remains (N = 76, dental age range 15 months–11.5 yrs) from a British Mediaeval site. Results show that crown height bears an approximately linear relationship with dental age for both first and second deciduous molars, and regression residuals are homoscedastic suggesting little inter-individual variation in wear rates. The second molar wears at a faster rate and its crown height bears a closer relationship with dental age. In the second molar, percent dentine exposure bears a non-linear relationship with dental age and with crown height, and for both molars the regression residuals of percent dentine exposed upon dental age are heteroscedastic. The ordinal wear stages of Dawson and Robson Brown (2013) are strongly correlated with dental age but different wear stages may correspond to dissimilar increments of crown height. Molar crown height is a sensitive and direct measure of occlusal wear, and its homoscedastic, linear relationship with dental age facilitates controlling for the effects of age when dental wear is used to study childhood diet in archaeological populations.