Archaeological Sites Research Articles

Past human decision-making based on stone tool performance: Experiments to test the influence of raw material variability and edge angle design on tool function

One of the main interests in the interpretation of the archaeological record and its variability within and through time and space is the production and use of past human stone tool technologies. Tool design and function are inevitably intertwined and strongly related to tool use. Understanding tool design provides information about early human technological adaptations and reflects human behaviour in the sense of conscious or unconscious decision-making. Nevertheless, the reason for major changes (including novelties, innovations, and loss) in past human stone tool technology is still poorly understood. A comprehensive approach focusing on tool function (What was the tool meant for?) and use (What was the tool used for?) can help to overcome this gap. While tool function (including performance) can be investigated experimentally, tool use can be addressed with use-wear analyses. These questions can be best investigated on technological systems showing little tool variability but strong evidence of maintenance and long-term use, such as Middle Palaeolithic industries.The Late Middle Palaeolithic record of Central and Eastern Europe is marked by the emergence of an asymmetric tool-type called Keilmesser (bifacial backed knives). Due to their sophisticated morphology, Keilmesser as a case study offer the potential to address aspects of raw material selection, tool production, maintenance, and reworking.This paper presents the results of an experiment designed to study the tool performance of Keilmesser from three archaeological sites, namely Balver Höhle, the Upper site of Buhlen and Grotte de Ramioul by testing raw material, edge angle and movement as independent variables. A highly controlled, sequential experiment was conducted using a mechanical device performing unidirectional cutting and carving movements on hard contact material. Results demonstrate the possibility to perform the mentioned task with 35° and 45° edge angles, maintaining function, albeit at differing levels of efficiency. The data has a direct impact on the interpretation of the archaeological assemblages regarding aspects such as stone tool morphology and resharpening. At the same time, the study highlights the importance of raw material analysis to understand the variability in the archaeological record and the implications on past human decision-making strategies.

Before the Dressel 20: pottery workshops and olive oil amphorae of the Guadalquivir valley between the Late Republic and Augustan-Tiberian times

Abstract The Baetican Dressel 20 is probably the most widely diffused amphora of the Roman period, found in large quantities throughout all the Roman and nearby territories. It is the most powerful evidence of the importance of the olive oil trade for Roman society and of olive oil's extraordinary production in the Baetican countryside. This wide diffusion of the amphora and, in some ways, its ubiquity at many archaeological sites, have hindered the study of the early stages of Baetican olive oil production and diffusion. The protagonists were not these spherical containers, commonly stamped up until the late 3rd c. CE, but previous models that evolved rapidly after their origins in Late Republican times. In this paper, we aim to analyze not only the formal characteristics and evolution of these peculiar and still unstandardized containers, but also other aspects linked to their production, as well as the scope of their diffusion.

A comparative study of commercially available, minimally invasive, sampling methods on Early Neolithic humeri analysed via palaeoproteomics

Due to methodological advances in the archaeological sciences, an increasing number of archaeological specimens undergo destructive sampling. However, the preservation of cultural heritage is a primary concern. This leads to a dilemma between accessing sample material and obtaining sufficient information for a meaningful analytical outcome. Ideally, sampling a specimen would preserve the object for further macro, micro, and molecular analyses. For palaeoproteomics, a number of minimally invasive sampling approaches have been proposed, representing different benefits and limitations. There have been studies comparing a selection of these protocols, however, these have focused on specimens from a homogenous preservation environment using Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS). Here we expand on earlier work by extending the comparison to specimens from two highly different preservation environments through both ZooMS and liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). We compare five sampling approaches and seven extraction protocols in total, on 10 Bos sp. humeri from the Early Neolithic site of La Draga, Spain, utilising MALDI-ToF MS and LC-MS/MS to generate proteomic output, while assessing protocol invasiveness using microscopy and 3D imaging. Five humeri originate from Sector A, which is mostly related to dry, terrestrial preservation conditions, while the other five humeri stem from Sector B, which is characterised by its phreatic/aquatic preservation conditions. We show that there is a significant difference in protein recovery and taxonomic specificity between the sampling techniques applied, as well as between burial conditions. Additionally, various surface modifications were observed depending on the specific sampling technique applied. It is therefore essential to assess protein preservation for each sedimentological context within an archaeological site before performing extensive sampling, as protein preservation can be highly inter- and intra-site-specific.

Absolute dating of the European Neolithic using the 5259 BC rapid 14C excursion

Abrupt radiocarbon (14C) excursions, or Miyake events, in sequences of radiocarbon measurements from calendar-dated tree-rings provide opportunities to assign absolute calendar dates to undated wood samples from contexts across history and prehistory. Here, we report a tree-ring and 14C-dating study of the Neolithic site of Dispilio, Northern Greece, a waterlogged archaeological site on Lake Kastoria. Findings secure an absolute, calendar-dated time using the 5259 BC Miyake event, with the final ring of the 303-year-long juniper tree-ring chronology dating to 5140 BC. While other sites have been absolutely dated to a calendar year through 14C-signature Miyake events, Dispilio is the first European Neolithic site of these and it provides a fixed, calendar-year anchor point for regional chronologies of the Neolithic.

Obsidian Sources and Source Provenance of Archaeological Obsidian in Northern Sonora: The Known and Unknown

A recent obsidian provenance study in three sites in the Valle de Altar region of northern Sonora has greatly expanded our understanding of the prehistoric relationship between the southern and northern Sonoran Desert. Based on obsidian source provenance, archaeological sites in the Valle de Altar indicate that contact with the region as far north as west-central and northern Arizona, the northern portion of the Papaquería, the Sierra Pinacate, the Sierra Madre Occidental, and the Basin and Range of Chihuahua was potentially frequent. However, the vast majority of artifacts produced from obsidian were procured apparently locally from an, as yet, unlocated source called here “SON Valle de Altar Unknown.” The purpose here is to discuss the relevant regional geology, the source provenance of the obsidian artifact assemblage, and relationships throughout the greater Sonoran Desert. This project also adds significant data to the Southwest Archaeological Obsidian Project (http://swxrflab.net/).

The Effect of Exposure to VR vs. 2D Virtual Environments on Restorativeness: The Mediating Role of the Sense of Presence

Virtual reality (VR) finds many fields of application due to its capability to reproduce “in virtuo” real environments. Previous studies highlighted that exposure to virtual environments leads to restorativeness, which in turn is related to several positive psychological outcomes. However, the mechanisms that lead to restorativeness are still unclear. The main aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of the sense of presence in the relationship between exposure to virtual environments and restorativeness. We conducted a study with a 2 × 2 between-subjects design. Two conditions (archaeological vs. natural sites) were presented on two levels (2D vs. VR), on a sample of 199 participants (M age = 22.49, SD = 7.22, range = 18–69). Results show a significant indirect effect of the sense of presence generated by VR on restorativeness, regardless of the condition presented. Our findings shed light on the underlying mechanisms of restorativeness enhanced by virtual environments. Limitations of the study, research developments, and practical implications are discussed.

Understanding the role of local stories in living archaeological heritage sites: the case of Stratonikeia

ABSTRACT Considering experience and memory as inseparable aspects of any place, understanding place attachment through narrative form may provide insight into more diverse perspectives of the values and motives of stakeholders undertaking the conservation of archaeological sites as heritage sites. This study empirically evaluates the ways in which we may understand local people’s place attachment and how that can affect the interpretation and presentation of archaeological heritage sites. The study aimed to analyse the interaction between local people and visitors through storytelling. The investigation focused on Stratonikeia, an archaeological heritage site in the southwest of Turkey, which has the character of a ‘living archaeological heritage site’ having been continually occupied since the Bronze Age. The research methodology of the study involves three phases: oral history, storytelling, and survey. The study’s results demonstrate how local stories can influence visitors’ understanding of the social aspects of a heritage site, facilitating a deeper and more dynamic understanding of the site as a living entity within its historical and contemporary contexts. Incorporating storytelling as a means of exploring the social dimension of heritage sites offers an alternative perspective that enhances the comprehensive understanding of these sites, supplementing their conventional material-based interpretations and presentations.

Employing discrete global grid systems for reproducible data obfuscation

Archaeological heritage worldwide is threatened through deliberate destruction in particular site looting making the location of archaeological sites potentially sensitive data. At the same time, public information about site locations are important for heritage management, as well as agricultural and urban development. Finding a balance between revealing detailed site locations and not providing data at all is a difficult task. Here we provide an approach to obfuscate archaeological site location data facilitated through a Discrete Global Grid System. We then apply the new obfuscation method to the global p3k14c data set. Veiling the locations of heritage sites with a Discrete Global Grid System allows tiered accuracy access for different stakeholders tailored to their respective needs as well as legal constraints and requirements of administrations. Discrete Global Grid System based obfuscation is globally scalable, consistent, reproducible, and can address the current heterogeneity of obfuscation methods.

Early Holocene inundation of Doggerland and its impact on hunter-gatherers: An inundation model and dates-as-data approach

Sea-level rise was a key factor changing environments during the Early Holocene in Northwest Europe. It affected Mesolithic hunter-gatherer communities by inundating large areas in the current North Sea, commonly referred to as Doggerland. In this paper we present novel inundation models for the southern North Sea providing visualisations of lateral inundation driven by sea-level rise and relate it to frequency analysis of radiocarbon dates from archaeological sites. These improve on previous studies that relied on bathymetric data, which includes post-inundation overprints of Holocene sedimentation and erosion, and thus significantly underestimates the timing of inundation in some areas.We constructed a paleoDEM (a composite elevation grid of the top of the Pleistocene) for the eastern part of the southern North Sea; and sea level surfaces that combine relative sea-level curves from glacio-isostatic adjustment models optimised for Britain and southern Scandinavia respectively. We corrected our paleoDEMs for tectonic background basin subsidence, and in the inundation modelling account for pre-compaction elevation of peat in coastal areas. We evaluated the impact of these model components on our results and describe the possible inundation history of Doggerland. We suggest earlier inundation than predicted by previous models, showing significant area loss around 10.5–10 ka cal BP.Palaeogeographic changes are compared with archaeological radiocarbon data using a dates-as-data approach. Composite Kernel Density Estimate and permutation tested Summed Probability Distributions are used as a proxy for the visibility, nature and intensity of human activity. Results indicate key periods of growth and decline recorded in the dataset, as well as regional differences in growth rate, some correlating with inundation phases. Chiefly, we find elevated growth rates around 10.5–10 ka in northwest Germany and the Netherlands, contemporaneous with the abovementioned phase of extensive area loss, and moreover, with changes in culture and practices on Early Mesolithic sites.However, the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological data is significantly influenced by accessibility and preservation of sediments of a certain age. We discuss the importance of inundation modelling and sediment data in understanding how landscape taphonomy affects archaeological patterning, especially in dates-as-data approaches.

The Application of Remote Sensing in the Conservation of the Archaeological Site of Pachacamac (Second–Sixteenth Century, Peru)

ABSTRACT Human activity and natural events may deteriorate or destroy archaeological sites. Mitigation is therefore a priority for their preservation. Pachacamac Museum has developed programs for research and conservation since 2008. The archaeological sanctuary of Pachacamac (second–sixteenth century), which consists of buildings made from adobe, roads, enclosures, and platforms, is located along the semi-arid central coast of Peru and was damaged in about 600 due to intense rain related to a major sixth-century El Niño event. More recent damage occurred during the 1925–26 El Niño episode. The Templo del Sol (fifteenth–sixteenth centuries) is one of the main adobe constructions, located on a hill about 60 m high. Orthophotogrammetric data was obtained for the Templo del Sol, to construct a 3 cm resolution digital surface model (DSM) and an orthoimage. Morphometric analysis of the DSM using hydrological and geomorphological quantitative parameters identified areas subjected to water flow or pooling during rainfall, and exposure of the building to wind and solar radiation, the latter responsible for the deterioration of painted walls. Areas of potential collapse were identified. This provides quantitative data for the planning, design, and execution of activities to preserve the site.

PIGMENTS AS A MASS MATERIAL: DISCUSSION OF THE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH IN RESEARCH

PIGMENTS AS A MASS MATERIAL: DISCUSSION OF THE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH IN RESEARCH

PREHISTORIC KASHMIR: UNRAVELING THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF NEOLITHIC ARTIFACTS

In the present paper, we have carried out a systematic study of the important archaeological remains recovered from the Neolithic sites in the Kashmir valley that were excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India. It is also evident from the earlier studies carried out by various Scholars that more than fifty-five Neolithic sites were discovered in the Jammu and Kashmir region, and two in the Ladakh region. The Neolithic remains were found at nine sites during the field work but among these only four Neolithic sites were systematically excavated extensively. These are Burzahom, Gufkral, Simthan and Kanispur. The archaeological artifacts reported from these Neolithic sites in the Kashmir valley were mainly pottery, terracotta objects, metal objects, stone objects, paste Objects and semi-precious stones. In the present paper, an analytical estimation of Neolithic culture such as the structural remains, ceramic assemblages, metal objects, terracotta objects, shell objects, bone objects, and stone objects are studied. The information provided in the present paper about the Neolithic culture in Kashmir is based on the excavations of these four Neolithic archaeological sites in Kashmir Valley such as Burzahom, Gufkral, Simthan and Kanispur. Many other Neolithic settlements are reported in the Kashmir valley which are still waiting for the excavation.

Multi-isotope reconstruction of Late Pleistocene large-herbivore biogeography and mobility patterns in Central Europe

Interpretations of Late Pleistocene hominin adaptative capacities by archaeologists have focused heavily on their exploitation of certain prey and documented contemporary behaviours for these species. However, we cannot assume that animal prey-taxa ecology and ethology were the same in the past as in the present, or were constant over archaeological timescales. Sequential isotope analysis of herbivore teeth has emerged as a particularly powerful method of directly reconstructing diet, ecology and mobility patterns on sub-annual scales. Here, we apply 87Sr/86Sr isotope analysis, in combination with δ18O and δ13C isotope analysis, to sequentially sampled tooth enamel of prevalent herbivore species that populated Europe during the Last Glacial Period, including Rangifer tarandus, Equus sp. and Mammuthus primigenius. Our samples come from two open-air archaeological sites in Central Germany, Königsaue and Breitenbach, associated with Middle Palaeolithic and early Upper Palaeolithic cultures, respectively. We identify potential inter- and intra-species differences in range size and movement through time, contextualised through insights into diet and the wider environment. However, homogeneous bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr across large parts of the study region prevented the identification of specific migration routes. Finally, we discuss the possible influence of large-herbivore behaviour on hominin hunting decisions at the two sites.

Metal Fragments of Roman Pipes from Pompeii: Investigations on Copper-Based Alloys, Corrosion Products, and Surface Treatments

This work reports the study of metal fragments from Roman pipes excavated from the archaeological site of Pompeii and currently preserved in the deposits of the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (MANN). The Roman pipe, called the tibia, is a reed wind musical instrument similar to the Greek aulos. It can be made of wood, bone, and/or metal. Materials consisting of metal Cu-based alloys were excavated from archaeological burial environments. This research aims to identify the composition of the alloys, characterize the corrosion patinas, and identify any ancient surface treatments on the fragments. Non-invasive and micro-invasive techniques were used to achieve this aim, i.e., optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectrophotometry, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectrometry. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the materials and manufacturing techniques used for these instruments, as well as the degradation processes occurring over the centuries.

Postglacial evolution of the Lake Constance shelf and its relation to a 10-km long chain of submerged Neolithic mounds

Postglacial evolution of the Lake Constance shelf and its relation to a 10-km long chain of submerged Neolithic mounds

Transformation of Silifke—A Historic Town in Anatolia in the Ottoman Period

This article focuses on the Ottoman Period urban fabric of Silifke, a crucial historical town in Turkey. The aim of this paper is to develop a research framework for the transfer of cultural heritage and cultural continuity in multi-layered historical cities. In this context, investigating the level of sociocultural transition and physical permeability between layers is the main problem of the article. The scope of the study consists of an approximately 1.5 km2 (150 hectares) area within the boundaries of the 3rd Degree archaeological site determined in 1995 by the Adana Cultural and Natural Heritage Conservation Regional Board. In the case area, there are building remains and 58 registered buildings, 40 of which were built during the Ottoman Period. The findings and evaluations were examined in three parts: the periods before the Ottoman Period, the Ottoman Period, and the Republican Period. Analyses were developed independently or overlapped from archive documents such as the Presidential Ottoman Archive (BOA), provincial yearbooks, engravings of travelers, photographs, aerial photographs of different years, current maps, zoning plans, and conservation plans. Then, we made descriptions and inferences about urban change/transformation, which is affected by the political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental factors of the town and will shape the future change/transformation and management of the town. The ultimate goal is to set up a basis for the Silifke town center that will guide future interventions and design and planning policies for cultural continuity.

From the Berelekh ‘mammoth graveyard’ to Berelekh geo-archaeological complex: Paleoenvironment, site formation processes, and human-mammoth relationships

The Berelekh ‘mammoth graveyard’ is located on the Berelekh River in the NE Yana-Indighirka Lowland at 70° 30′ N and 144° 02′ E in the East Siberian Arctic. First studied in 1970, it was originally viewed as an example of a natural accumulation of mammoth remains in a periglacial landscape, although the discovery of associated archaeological remains indicated a human presence. New field research has yielded more data on stratigraphy, site formation processes, paleoenvironments, and age, allowing reassessment of the relationship between the mass accumulation of mammoth remains and archaeological site, which together constitute the Berelekh geo-archaeological complex (BGAC). The accumulation of mammoth bone spans 13,700–11,800 14C yr B.P., with respective peaks at 12,400, 12,200, and 11,800 14C yr B.P. The peaks fall within the Bølling-Allerød warming, represented in the Berelekh pollen record. Based on the taphonomy and dating of the BGAC, humans contributed to the formation of the bone-bed and procurement of mammoth was related to production of mammoth ivory technology. The dating of the mammoth bone accumulation coincides with the age of the archaeological site, indicating recurring but not permanent human occupation of the area. Based on IntCal20 calibration, the archaeological component of the Berelekh geo-archaeological complex dates to ∼14,000–13,500 calBP.

A comparative approach to GIS modelling of terrestrial mobility in archaeological sites. The iron age hillfort of Villasviejas del Tamuja as a study case

The archaeological analysis of Historical mobility is an increasingly studied topic thanks to new geographic information technologies. This paper proposes a modelling exercise of the spatial behaviour of a Second Iron Age community in the Middle Tagus Valley: the hillfort of Villasviejas del Tamuja (Botija, Cáceres). Based on our knowledge of the configuration of the site and the surrounding settlements, we propose a heuristic use of a series of GIS tools to understand how the spatial relationship between both elements was structured. More specifically, we compare the results obtained with different calculation methods that combine two essential variables to address this issue: mobility and visibility relations. On the one hand, we evaluate the results with the application of an already developed methodology: the MADO analysis. On the other hand, we present a complementary procedure for the calculation of Least Cost Paths (LCP), considering the visibility as a key element in the mobility. The methodology uses the same data, in a paradigmatic case study for comparing results. The differences obtained through the use of different tools are thus evaluated in order to weigh up the additional or complementary knowledge that they can provide us with to investigate archaeological research questions such as the defensive architecture of the hillfort or the distribution of other nearby settlements.

A Machine-Learning-Assisted Classification Algorithm for the Detection of Archaeological Proxies (Cropmarks) Based on Reflectance Signatures

The detection of subsurface archaeological remains using a range of remote sensing methods poses several challenges. Recent studies regarding the detection of archaeological proxies like those of cropmarks highlight the complexity of the phenomenon. In this work, we present three different methods, and associated indices, for identifying stressed reflectance signatures indicating buried archaeological remains, based on a dataset of measured ground spectroradiometric reflectance. Several spectral profiles between the visible and near-infrared parts of the spectrum were taken in a controlled environment in Cyprus during 2011–2012 and are re-used in this study. The first two (spectral) methods are based on a suitable analysis of the spectral signatures in (1) the visible part of the spectrum, in particular in the neighborhood of 570 nm, and (2) the red edge part of the spectrum, in the neighborhood of 730 nm. Machine learning (decision trees) allows for the deduction of suitable wavelengths to focus on in order to formulate the proposed indices and the associated classification criteria (decision boundaries) that can enhance the detection probability of stressed vegetation. Noise in the signal is taken into account by simulating reflectance signatures perturbed by white noise. Applying decision tree classification on the ensemble of simulations and basic statistical analysis, we refine the formulation of the indices and criteria for the noisy signatures. The success rate of the proposed methods is over 90%. The third method rests on the estimation of vegetation/canopy reflectance parameters through inversion of the physical-based PROSAIL reflectance model and the associated classification through machine learning methods. The obtained results provide further insights into the formation of stress vegetation that occurred due to the presence of shallow buried archaeological remains, which are well aligned with physical-based models and existing empirical knowledge. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the usefulness of radiative transfer models such as PROSAIL for understanding the formation of cropmarks. Similar studies can support future research directions towards the development of regional remote sensing methods and algorithms if systematic observations are adequately dispersed in space and time.

Society and Archaeological Sites in Interwar Greece

Throughout the twentieth century, Greek society invested in the enhancement and management of archaeological sites and monuments seen as particularly important for the nation’s political and diplomatic agendas. Antiquities have always been part of public life in modern Greece, as evidenced by national campaigns emphasizing the timeless value of ancient Greek culture, promoted in the service of national, political and economic ends. In this context, the Greek Archaeological Service has long carried out works for landscaping and demarcating archaeological sites, as well as for enhancing access to them. This study, drawing on archival material of the Directorate for the Management of the National Archive of Monuments (DMNAM) and other sources as well as two case studies—the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae/Andritsaina and the archaeological site of Delphi—examines the factors that have determined the relationships between antiquities and Greek society. In particular, it focuses on contradictions, and occasional conflicts, related to such relationships during the interwar period (1918–1939) and the social impact of the promotion and enhancement of archaeological sites. The paper also emphasizes local communities’ and authorities’ involvement in managing archaeological sites in their regions due to high tourist interest during this period.