Landscape Archaeology Research Articles

Multi-sensor drone survey of ancestral agricultural landscapes at Picuris Pueblo, New Mexico

Although aircraft-acquired lidar has proven to be a transformative technology for archaeology in forested regions around the world, drone-acquired lidar systems that could potentially offer higher-resolution imagery at much lower cost remain difficult to deploy in field settings, while the data they produce are prone to large errors and are challenging to process. This paper presents results of a study that employs a new ultra-compact drone-based lidar system, alongside aerial thermal and visible light imaging, to document ancient agricultural landscapes at Picuris Pueblo, New Mexico. We discuss the advantages of this new instrumentation, various approaches to field data collection, and as well as our novel data processing and filtering methods, which collectively offer key methodological advances for archaeological investigations using drone-based lidar. Results reveal extensive remains of a vast system of terraces and stone-built field systems, preserved below the modern piñon-juniper-ponderosa forests of the Picuris Reservation and surrounding areas. These findings offer new perspectives on the scale and intensity of past agricultural activities in this highland region of the American Southwest, while demonstrating the power of combining multiple drone-based remote sensing datasets with detailed surface surveys to aid in the discovery, mapping, and interpretation of archaeological landscapes in forested regions.

A Multi-Temporal Analysis of Archaeological Site Destruction using Landsat Satellite Data and Machine Learning, Moche Valley, Peru

The destruction of archaeological sites and the loss of archaeological landscapes remains a global concern as populations and urban areas continue to expand. Archaeological sites are not only significant to local communities, national identities, and modern tourist economies but also provide critical knowledge of past sociocultural interactions, settlement patterns, human-environment relationships, and risk mitigation strategies. While archaeological landscapes and site destruction have remained outside of traditional land use land cover change (LULCC) studies, they are a form of urban and agricultural land use. By conceptualizing archaeological site destruction within land change science, this study provides an innovative approach for assessing “what's left” of historically surveyed archaeological landscapes. Using a Random Forest algorithm and Landsat satellite data, this study quantifies archaeological site destruction attributed to LULCC in Peru's lower Moche Valley between 1985 and 2020. More than 400 archaeological sites previously recorded during the Chan Chan-Moche Valley Project (CCMVP, 1969–1974) are analyzed. Results indicate that less than a quarter of the original CCMVP sites remain on the landscape. The primary drivers of LULCC in the lower Moche Valley include population growth, migration, and government policies, while secondary drivers include heritage values. Positioning archaeological survey data within land change science and integrating machine learning techniques can benefit historic survey reassessments globally and provides significant knowledge of archaeological site destruction and the socioeconomic conditions that underly dynamic landscape changes.

The Landscapes of Disease and Death in Colonial Mauritius

AbstractThe recurring ebb and flow of epidemic diseases profoundly impacted how colonial administrations dealt with death. This article focuses on the role disease played in shaping the “necrogeography” of colonial landscapes, a key point of intersection between funerary and landscape archaeology. Using an extensive corpus of evidence from cemeteries that capture inhumation practices from formerly enslaved and indentured populations, this article provides an assessment of these burial contexts as part of the cultural landscape in Mauritius. Drawing together functional and emotional dimensions, their features and development will be considered against the backdrop of the island’s specific and dynamic disease ecology.

Soil and spatial analyses in the assessment of the focal point of the extinct medieval royal burgh of Roxburgh

The ‘lost’ royal burgh of Roxburgh in the Scottish borders is arguably one of the most important archaeological settlement sites in Scotland of the medieval period. Although short-lived, being occupied as an urban centre for just around 300 years, in its heyday, it was a royal residence, jurisdictional and administrative seat, and regional focus of economic activity and international trade. Presently however, very little surviving above-ground trace remains of this once dynamic settlement. With a Scheduled Monument status (No. 4284), activity on-site is now restricted to prevent damage to the below-ground archaeology. This study explores the locale(s) of Roxburgh’s main thoroughfare in the Friars’ Haugh area during its occupation through the spatial analysis of soil data coupled with historical records and findings from past research studies. The aim of the study is two-fold; (1) to determine the viability in the investigation of archaeological landscapes of standard, relatively non-invasive low-cost analytical techniques applied in the study, as permissible on sites with Scheduled Monument status, (2) in synergy with previous geophysical, and geoarchaeological studies carried out on the site, provide new evidence and/or corroborate the existing knowledge base in advancing the discourse on the history and development of Roxburgh. The study area encompasses the putative location of the main street as identified in a previous study by GSB Prospection and Wessex Archaeology. Suites of soil markers (phosphorus concentration, magnetic susceptibility, organic carbon content, and soil pH), were used to demarcate zones of high to low activity through quantitative changes in the concentration and/or value of these markers. Potable optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) analysis was used to investigate depositional history that revealed a progressive accumulation of materials of proximal origins, however, evidence of mixing of sediments is discernible. The spatial distribution of soil markers across the site shows two zones of substantial enhancement, revealing potentially a second thoroughfare on the west of the site (site B), in addition to the main thoroughfare on site A which overlaps with the site identified in previous studies.

Experiencing gloomy Dis: Tombs, tunnels and the phenomenology of the Roman Underworld in the Phlegraean Fields

SummaryRecent work in landscape archaeology has emphasized the importance of considering the experience of moving through landscapes and examining the place of burials within wider landscape contexts. This work recognizes that burial placement was often intended to create and curate experiences and meaning. While burials near roads and waterways have been discussed at length, burials near tunnels, which are an important feature of the road network of Roman central Italy, have not yet featured in discussions of the experience of Roman landscapes or the visibility of graves. This article explores these twin themes in the Phlegraean Fields west of Naples, where burials appear next to the entrances of two monumental tunnels. This placement appears to make an experiential play on the perceptions of the descent into the Underworld as described in Classical literature.

The development of Landscape Archaeology in Britain, present conflicts and possible new directions

ABSTRACT This article outlines the development of landscape archaeology in Britain from two perspectives, namely: methods used to identify patterns and changes in the landscape; and theories used to explain these changes. Current conflicting theoretical views are discussed, and the adoption of the mixed method approach as a possible future development that may bridge these contrasting views is examined.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROSPECTION WITH CORONA AND WV-3 SATELLITE IMAGERY OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE OF ZAR TEPE (UZBEKISTAN)

Abstract. The use of different data from satellite platforms for archaeological prospecting and remote sensing has been applied since the end of the 20th century. Although the current use of drones with different visible and multispectral sensors for small areas has partially replaced in some cases the use of this type of satellite information due to its higher spatial resolution. The historical importance of satellite imagery is essential to find out about and compare the transformations of the archaeological landscape of the last 60 years since the CORONA satellite program started in 1960. In this paper we propose the evaluation of a proposal for the automation of processes of two photographic reconnaissance correlative satellite programs CORONA (1960-1972), HEXAGON (1971-1986) declassified since 1995 and 2011 respectively, and the commercial satellite WorldView-3 (WV3) (2014) for use in the detection of buried archaeological structures at the archaeological site of Zar Tepe in the southeast of Uzbekistan. This is a site located in the Surkhan Darya region very little known between the first century BC and the fourth century AD. This methodology is part of the IPAEB project (International Pluridisciplinary Archaeological Expedition to Bactria) led by the University of Barcelona, the University of Salamanca and recently in 2019 the University of Zaragoza. IPAEB was started in 2006 in the South of Uzbekistan and is currently trying to explore the urban planning of the Zar Tepe archaeological site and the elements that make up its natural physical environment: evidence of communication routes, smallholdings, irrigation channels, fences and sources of raw materials.

A STRATEGY USING HERITAGE DOCUMENTATION FOR MANAGING CHANGE OF THE HISTORIC CENTRE OF BUKHARA

Abstract. Bukhara, historic city of the Silk Roads, has been going through changes for more than 2000 years. The historic centre is UNESCO World Heritage since 1993 including hundreds of monuments such as madrassas, mosques and caravanserais, and an urban fabric containing the traditional Bukharian houses. As a dynamic city in Uzbekistan, its transformation is ongoing. A number of previous studies, including a large scale UNESCO field campaign, have been carried out to identify the overall condition of this historic city. Being most of the traditional houses privately owned and built of earthen materials, these studies have highlighted that this type of heritage is under threat of high impact of changes. Therefore, there has been a need of guidelines to protect and manage change of this outstanding heritage. Appropriate decisions in heritage conservation are based on timely, relevant and accurate information about the conditions, materials and evolution of heritage buildings and landscapes. To support these tasks, two main international projects, the University College London (UCL) Central Asian Archaeological Landscapes (CAAL) funded by Arcadia Fund, and the Traditional Bukharian Houses Documentation and Conservation approaches funded by the World Monuments Fund (WMF) are supporting the heritage management of city of Bukhara in partnership with the International Institute of Central Asian Studies (IICAS), the local administration, universities and the Bukharian community. This paper presents the current two large projects to create a digital database of the mahallas -neighbourhoods and its traditional houses by documenting heritage attributes, and ultimately produce the Guidelines on Conservation, Maintenance and Adaptive Reuse recognising heritage regeneration, as a core principle, and the contribution of heritage towards the achievement of the UN 2030 Agenda and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Innocents Abroad? The Consumption of Antiquities from the Holy Land

Abstract Why do people want to own a piece of the past? What tempts consumers? What effect does consumption have on archaeological landscapes? Generally, Holy Land consumers can be broken down into two categories: those on the low-end interested in small mementoes of a trip, and those on the high-end, wealthier individuals willing to make financial investments for the highest quality pieces. Whether buyers are wily speculators, investing to increase their capital (cultural, economic, social, sensu Bourdieu), or innocent pilgrims on a once in a lifetime trip to the Holy Land, the result is the same: looting and theft from archaeological sites in order to meet consumer demand for archaeological artifacts. With data gathered from archaeological ethnographies, this article assesses the purchasers of artifacts, the unintended consequences of their acquisitions, and considers the ways we might create a set of better-informed consumers in the licensed antiquities market in Israel.

GOING TO SEE THE NYMPHS: LANDSCAPE AND RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE AT THE ZAR TRYPA CAVE (MOUNT OSSA, THESSALY)

This paper focuses on the little-known but important cave-sanctuary of Zar Trypa on Mount Ossa (modern Kissavos) in north-eastern Thessaly. In 1910, research conducted at the site uncovered remains of votives from the Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods, including a group of eight inscriptions dedicated to the Nymphs. Despite this remarkable epigraphic assemblage, the site was not investigated beyond a single excavation season and today is largely unknown. Consequently, the Zar Trypa cave and its finds have never featured prominently in the discussion of Thessalian religion or of Greek ‘natural’ sanctuaries. Combining archival studies, on-site observations and GIS-based methods of landscape archaeology, this paper sets out to re-assess the surviving archaeological evidence from the Zar Trypa cave, to examine the spatial setting of ritual activity at the site, and to place the cave in the context of Mount Ossa's natural environment and ancient settlement pattern. Drawing on the methodological framework of ‘lived religion’, this assessment not only contributes towards our understanding of ancient religious experiences at the Zar Trypa cave, but also addresses broader questions such as the significance and meaning of ‘sacred travel’ in pre-Christian antiquity.

Emergent technological variation in archaeological landscapes: a primate perspective.

Archaeological evidence informs our understanding of the evolution of hominin behaviour. Such evidence is traditionally used to reconstruct hominin activities and intentions. In the Plio-Pleistocene, the presence or absence of specific tools and variation in artefact density is often used to infer foraging strategies, cognitive traits and functional activities. However, the Plio-Pleistocene archaeological record is known to be time-averaged and forms through the aggregation of repeated behavioural events over time. Thus, archaeological patterns do not reflect discrete episodes of activity, but rather the interaction of behaviour with environmental factors over time. However, little is known about how such interactions produce archaeological variation diversity. Primate archaeology can help address this research gap by providing the opportunity to observe how behaviour produces material patterns in a natural setting. This study, thus, examines how varying the material properties of stone and resource availability influence the artefactual signature of nut-cracking in a population of long-tailed macaques from Lobi Bay, Yao Noi island, Thailand. Results show that these interactions can produce a structured and diverse material signature in terms of artefact density and frequency of specific artefact types. These findings demonstrate how material patterns can emerge from long-term interactions between behaviour and environmental factors.

Geomorphological assessment of the preservation of archaeological tell sites

Tells are multi-layered, archaeological mounds representing anthropogenic landforms common in arid regions. In such contexts, the preservation of the archaeological record is mined by ongoing climate changes, shift in land use, and intense human overgrazing. Such natural and human-driven factors tune the response of archaeological soils and sediments to erosion. Geomorphology offers a plethora of tools for mapping natural and anthropogenic landforms and evaluating their response to unremitting weathering, erosional and depositional processes. Here, we present a geomorphological investigation on two anthropogenic mounds in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, with a special focus on the ongoing erosional processes mining their slope stability and threatening the preservation of the local archaeological landscape. Applying the revised universal soil loss equation model for soil loess derived from UAV imagery and implemented with geoarchaeological investigation, we assess the erosion rate along anthropogenic mounds and estimate the risk of losing archaeological deposits. We argue that a large-scale application of our approach in arid and semi-arid regions may improve our ability to (i) estimate the rate of soil and/or archaeological sediments loss, (ii) propose mitigation strategies to prevent the dismantling of the archaeological record, and (iii) schedule archaeological operations in areas of moderate to extreme erosion risk.

The Evolution of Historic Agroforestry Landscape in the Northern Apennines (Italy) and Its Consequences for Slope Geomorphic Processes

Historic agricultural practices have played a dominant role in shaping landscapes, creating a heritage which must be understood and conserved from the perspective of sustainable development. Agroforestry (i.e., the practice of combining trees with agriculture or livestock) has existed since ancient times in European countries, and it has been recognised as one of the most resilient and multifunctional cultural landscapes, providing a wide range of economic, sociocultural, and environmental benefits. This research explores aspects of the history, physical characteristics, decline, and current state of conservation of historic agroforestry systems on the Northern Apennines in Italy, using an interdisciplinary approach combining archival sources, landscape archaeology, dendrochronology, and GIS analysis. Furthermore, through computer-based modelling, this research aims to evaluate how the abandonment of this historic rural land-use strategy impacted slope geomorphic processes over the long term. The importance of environmental values attached to traditional rural landscapes has received much attention even beyond the heritage sector, justifying the definition of transdisciplinary approaches necessary to ensure the holistic management of landscapes. Through the integration of the Unit Stream Power-Based Erosion Deposition (USPED) equation with landscape archaeological data, the paper shows how restoring the historic agroforestry landscape could significantly mitigate soil mass movements in the area. Thus, the interdisciplinary workflow proposed in this study enables a deep understanding of both the historical evolution of agroforestry systems and its resulting effects for cumulative soil erosion and deposition in the face of climate change.

Neolithic livestock practices in high mountain areas: A multi-proxy study of pastoral enclosures of Molleres II (Eastern Pyrenees)

This paper presents the results of the archaeological and palaeoenvironmental investigation carried out at Molleres II site located at 2.425 m a.s.l. in the area of Puigpedrós-Malniu (Meranges, La Cerdanya, Eastern Pyrenees). A high-resolution multi-proxy research is proposed combining landscape archaeology, soil micromorphology, anthracology, biomolecular analysis, and radiocarbon dating. This work allowed us to characterize the site's functionality, providing new insight into the occupation dynamics of high mountain spaces starting from the Neolithic onwards. Based on this research Molleres II has been interpreted as a complex and wide open-air site built up by the end of the Middle Neolithic (3636–2701 cal. BC) and consisting of large enclosures entirely dedicated to seasonal animal husbandry and located at an exceptionally high altitude. These unique settings make the site a primer for this period and in the Eastern Pyrenees, revealing the considerable intensity of the animal presence since the Prehistory in these uplands.Following the Neolithic, a second phase of more intense occupation likely occurred during Middle Ages (1179–1434 cal. AD). However, the animal presence in this mountain sector had never been exhausted, even in other historical periods. Palaeoenvironmental data also suggest that such intense and long-term animal presence and possibly fire use could be at the origin of stable grassland-dominated environments and open landscapes maintained almost continuously until nowadays.

The foodplant fitness landscape of Hollow Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa

Studying Stone Age foraging behaviours in terms of plant foods is difficult because of preservation, sampling and identification biases. Current foodplant populations, knowledge about their use in recent times, and how they are distributed across the landscape, provide valuable middle-range proxies from which work on archaeological landscapes and material can benefit. With this contribution we provide foodplant lists for three different foraging ranges (radii of ∼ 12.5 km, ∼35 km, and ∼ 70 km) around Hollow Rock Shelter. By comparing data for each of the foraging ranges directly, we discuss proportional increases in foodplant resources when moving further away from the site. We demonstrate that the ∼ 35 km foraging range is the most efficient. This implies that people staying at the site (for shorter or longer periods) may have regularly employed a strategy of temporary camping for a night or two away from the site to forage especially preservable foods that could be brought to the site. Our data highlight potential plant-food staples, and show that under-surface storage organs (USOs) of plants, followed by fruit and leaves are the most abundant edible plant parts available on the Hollow Rock Shelter landscape within all three of the foraging ranges, and that most of these could be eaten raw.

Producing Territories for Extractivism: Encomiendas, Estancias and Forts in the Long-Term Political Ecology of Colonial Southern Chile

The aim of this article is to show that what seems natural today has a long social and environmental history, associated with the way in which territory has been socially produced. Socioenvironmental change is not natural, but instead is a political ecological project, and in this case, a colonial project deeply connected with the form that capitalism took in Southern Chile from the 16th century. This paper aims to connect three things: the colonial encomienda system as a primitive accumulation based on the capture of people and land to produce profit, the metabolic rift produced by colonial territorial relationships, and the emergence of a new nature which, dialectically, destroyed and created the conditions for the Indigenous uprisings, and the Mapuche resistance that continues today. The case of the fort in Mariquina Valley is used to illustrate the interlinkages between historical geography and landscape archaeology, to make the colonial production of nature visible, to understand how the Spanish fortress supported the production of the new colonial nature and the dispossession and transformation of the Indigenous territories.

Archaeological Monitoring in War-Torn Ukraine

ABSTRACT The article examines the problems of monitoring the destruction of the archaeological heritage in Ukraine as a result of the aggression of the Russian Federation. The negative impact of the war on the general state of research is indicated. The problems that arise during the monitoring of archaeological heritage in the de-occupied territories are considered. Among the factors that make it difficult to record the loss of archaeological heritage, the following are detailed: problems related to the accounting of archaeological objects; issues of limited remote and direct access to sites in the de-occupied and front-line territories; immediate risks to life and health when conducting field research. The article also gives a brief description of the work carried out in relation to monitoring of archaeological sites in the de-occupied territories and presents the activities of the ‘Archaeological Landscapes Monitoring Group’. One of the conclusions of the study is the statement that there is an urgent need for a long-term state program to compile an archaeological record of Ukraine. The need to record losses in the field of archaeology during the war allows Ukraine to restart the system of site registration at a modern level and with the use of international experience.

Modelling the impact of historic landscape change on soil erosion and degradation

International policies and guidelines often highlight the divide between ‘nature’ and ‘heritage’ in landscape management, and the weakness of monodisciplinary approaches. This study argues that historic agricultural practices have played a key role in shaping today’s landscapes, creating a heritage which affords opportunities for more sustainable landscape management. The paper develops a new interdisciplinary approach with particular reference to soil loss and degradation over the long term. It presents innovative methods for assessing and modelling how pre-industrial agricultural features can mitigate soil erosion risk in response to current environmental conditions. Landscape archaeology data presented through Historic Landscape Characterisation are integrated in a GIS-RUSLE model to illustrate the impact of varying historic land-uses on soil erosion. The resulting analyses could be used to inform strategies for sustainable land resource planning.

Introduction - Archaeology and the Natural Environment

Archaeological sites and monuments are defined as spatial entities and are therefore an intrinsic part of any environment, as humans perceive it. Landscape archaeology and concepts such as 'landscape biography' have taught us that our environment has developed over millennia of interactions between humans and nature. In co-evolutionary feedback-loops, human societies adapt to and change their environments and archaeological sites also reflect this principle.

The Archaeological Landscape Park of Aguntum - an Alpine Roman Town in East Tyrol. Synergy between cultural heritage, landscape protection and biodiversity

The archaeological site of Aguntum is located near Lienz in East Tyrol. Around ten years ago, Aguntum was not attractive to visitors, had an inconsistent appearance, and no clear policy for future development. In 2014, this led to the initiation of a broad-based process to define a mission statement for Aguntum. The goal was to create a common, homogeneous strategy that would serve as a future 'big picture' for all decision-makers to orientate themselves by. Based on this, a master plan was developed. Over the years, it has been possible to implement many measures, defined in the master plan, while still sticking to the actual basic tasks of scientific excavation work and preservation or conservation of the monument. Aguntum is a good example that cultural heritage and biodiversity are very closely related.