Archaeological Indicators Research Articles

I luoghi di sosta: funzioni, spazi, contesti

Late antique itineraries and juridical sources show that both the Roman road system and the related post stations network were still active in Late Antiquity. Roads and stations were primarily used by public officers travelling under the aegis of the cursus publicus, but literary sources confirm that they were also used by private people, travelling for different purposes. Many different words (mansio, stathmos, statio, mutatio, deversorium, praetorium, etc.) indicate the places used by travellers for resting and, if the case, for changing horses, pack- and draught-animals. Unfortunately, this relative abundance of written sources is not paralleled by a similar amount of archaeological data, since the archaeological research agenda had only just recently focused on "minor" settlements located along the roads. While many smaller or larger archaeological sites located along the roads have been tentatively recognised as places associated with post station functions, mainly on the basis of their toponymy, we still lack a proper research framework to archaeologically identify such a function. A more or less close relationship with a road pathway, the presence of a large paved courtyard surrounded by stables and warehouses, the existence of a baths building or a larger, isolated, thermal complex seem to be assumed as possible archaeological indicators of a site that performed the function of resting place, may be in association with other functions as well. Despite of the difficulty in precisely identifying the place and the typology of any single part of the system, the road stations network provides on the whole a very interesting study case for an experiment of contextual archaeology, intended to evaluate the role that those settlements had within the scenery presented by the overall transformation of landscapes and the settlement patterns in Late Antiquity. [Author]

Morphoneotectonics and lithology of the eastern sector of the Gulf of Trieste (NE Italy)

ABSTRACTThe paper aims to describe and map the geomorphological and lithological features of the Gulf of Trieste and its eastern coasts and to define its neotectonic behaviour by means of the analysis of the morphoneotectonic evidence. The final map, produced at a scale of 1:30,000, shows the outcome of field investigations carried out along the coast and the sea bottom and a detailed geomorphological classification of the coastline. Published and new data coming from the analysis of archaeological remains, geomorphological and sedimentological sea-level indicators and geophysical researches are discussed in order to provide a complete overview of the study area.

Evaluating the Photoprotective Effects of Ochre on Human Skin by In Vivo SPF Assessment: Implications for Human Evolution, Adaptation and Dispersal.

Archaeological indicators of cognitively modern behaviour become increasingly prevalent during the African Middle Stone Age (MSA). Although the exploitation of ochre is viewed as a key feature of the emergence of modern human behaviour, the uses to which ochre and ochre-based mixtures were put remain ambiguous. Here we present the results of an experimental study exploring the efficacy of ochre as a topical photoprotective compound. This is achieved through the in vivo calculation of the sun protection factor (SPF) values of ochre samples obtained from Ovahimba women (Kunene Region, Northern Namibia) and the Palaeozoic Bokkeveld Group deposits of the Cape Supergroup (Western Cape Province, South Africa). We employ visible spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and granulometric analyses to characterise ochre samples. The capacity of ochre to inhibit the susceptibility of humans to the harmful effects of exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is confirmed and the mechanisms implicated in the efficacy of ochre as a sunscreen identified. It is posited that the habitual application of ochre may have represented a crucial innovation for MSA humans by limiting the adverse effects of ultraviolet exposure. This may have facilitated the colonisation of geographic regions largely unfavourable to the constitutive skin colour of newly arriving populations.

Upper Holocene sea level changes in the West Saronic Gulf, Greece

Along the Peloponnesian coast of the Saronic Gulf and on the coast of Aegina and Poros islands, submerged coastal geomorphological features related directly with submerged ancient coastal constructions, indicate three distinct sea levels. Submerged tidal notches incised on the carbonate basement, beachrocks formed in the intertidal zone and archaeological indicators, such as the ancient harbour installations in Kenchreai and Epidaurus and on Aegina island, the extended coastal buildings and constructions in Agios Vlasis, Psifta and Palaiokastro-Methana, and Vagionia on Poros island, are used to determine the age and magnitude of submersion and the extent of the Upper Holocene marine transgression. By the correlation of geomorphological, historical and archaeological indications three distinct sea levels were identified, at −3.30 ± 0.15 m, −0.90 ± 0.15 m and −0.55 ± 0.05 m. Initial change in sea level occurred definitely after AD 400 ± 100. The intermediate change is dated between AD 1586 and 1839, and the most recent change after 1839. Sea transgression followed a long period of sea level stability, which lasted at least 2200 years, from the Middle Bronze Age to the Late Roman period.

Permeability and persistence of physical and social boundaries in the context of incarceration in nineteenth century Western Australia

AbstractIdentifying the documentary and archaeological indications of torture, punishment, discipline and imprisonment are key factors in addressing the ways in which society exerts its control over the individual; particularly the non‐conformist, the criminal, the indentured and the enslaved. Expressions of forced labour control are quite common in the archaeological record, at places such as large institutions, plantations, mining towns and industrial sites. But there are distinct differences between criminal imprisonment and racial enslavement, which become evident when one examines the permeability and persistence of physical and social boundaries. The ways in which Euro‐Australian and Aboriginal prisoners were treated in nineteenth century Western Australia gave rise to a system in which physical boundaries were more or less permeable for one group, but not the other. Although it was outlawed by the British Parliament just a few years after the Swan River Colony was established, both formal and informal types of incipient slavery seem to have persisted in the guise of forced incarceration, indentured servitude and illicit abductions. This was, in a way, reminiscent of the enslavement of native North Americans in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. Several examples are provided to illustrate these ideas.

Burning the Land

Archaeological indications for off-site burning by late Pleistocene and early Holocene hunter-gatherers present intransigent interpretive problems; by contrast, burning practices by recent hunter-gatherers are well documented. Here, we present a systematic global inventory of extant burning practices—including the reasons for burning and the environmental setting of firing activities—and also discuss their visibility in the archaeological record. This inventory is based on ethnographic and historical texts. In historical times, off-site fire was used for a wide range of purposes, irrespective of age and gender, with significant advantages for its producers. While the reasons given for burning can vary between individuals, in the longer term, many hunter-gatherer firing practices created more mosaic types of environments than would have occurred naturally. The historical visibility of hunter-gatherer burning activities contrasts with the relative invisibility of such practices in the contemporary archaeological record, highlighting the difficulty of analyzing past use of fire. On the basis of its ethnographic importance, we suggest that diverse off-site fire use is as old as the regular use of fire. New multiproxy data from well-sampled sequences, analyzed at a local scale, is needed to test this hypothesis.

12 The Mexican Legacy in Nicaragua, or Problems when Data Behave Badly

ABSTRACTInvestigations over the past 15 years have sought archaeological evidence for Mexican migrants to Pacific Nicaragua, as indicated in ethnohistorical origin myths and as embraced by contemporary popular culture. Extensive excavations at three Postclassic sites have provided evidence of domestic architecture, foodways, mortuary remains, and religious practices—all considered to be potential archaeological indicators of ethnicity, but none of which provide strong evidence of Mexican identity. A larger theme is the contemporary reaction to challenging the identity of the indigenous ancestors. This paper discusses the Mexican legacy in Nicaragua, and strategies for negotiating popular ideology with badly behaved archaeological data.

Assessing the photoprotective effects of red ochre on human skin by in vitro laboratory experiments

Archaeological indicators of cognitive complexity become increasingly prevalent during the African Middle Stone Age, with the habitual exploitation of red ochre widely viewed as a key feature of the emergence of modern human behaviour. Given that some of the uses of ochre remain ambiguous, we present the preliminary results of an ongoing study in which we explore the efficacy of red ochre as a photoprotective device or sunscreen. The capacity of ochre to inhibit the susceptibility of humans to the detrimental effects of ultraviolet radiation was confirmed through the in vitro calculation of the sun protection factor values of samples derived from the Kunene Region in Namibia and the Bokkeveld Group deposits, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Visible spectroscopy was employed to determine colourimetric parameters of samples and assess the correlation between ochre colour and sun protection factor. The possible role of ochre as a sunscreen agent for hominin populations, including modern humans, during the Middle Stone Age in Africa is explored. We conclude that the habitual use of red ochre as a photoprotective agent likely played a role in the ability of prehistoric humans to adapt to novel environmental circumstances.

Una posible cancha de juego de pelota en el área de la ciudadela, teotihuacan

Several archaeological indicators suggest that the ball game was an activity known and practiced in the ancient city of Teotihuacan. The mural of Tepantitla shows different ways to play ball in an open space with mobile markers or, possibly, in a field flanked by parallel structures.The article is a synthesis of the information known until now on the practice of the ball game in Teotihuacan. We also present new data on a large architectonical structure excavated recently in the Ciudadela complex and identified as a ball game structure used in the earliest Teotihuacan phases.

Cosmogenic nuclide burial dating of hominin-bearing Pleistocene cave deposits at Swartkrans, South Africa

Based on the cosmogenic nuclide burial dating technique, we present new radiometric age estimates of 2.19 ± 0.08 and 1.80 ± 0.09 million-years-old (Ma) for Member 1, and 0.96 ± 0.09 Ma for Member 3 of the Swartkrans Formation in South Africa. Our data are consistent with, and expand upon, results from previous radiometric dating techniques used at the site. The burial ages of Member 1 are consistent with the uranium–lead (U–Pb) age provided by bracketing flowstones (Pickering et al., 2011), while the age of Member 3 is significantly more precise than the large age bracket provided by U–Pb dating of tooth enamel (Balter et al., 2008) and recently re-evaluated electron spin resonance data (Herries and Adams, 2013). These new dates provide the complete age range for the extinct hominin, Paranthropus robustus, as well as indicate the first appearance of the genus Homo in southern Africa. Our results also indicate: the first, as well as the last, manufacture and use of bone digging tools in South Africa; some of the earliest evidence of stone tool use and large animal butchery in South Africa; and one of the earliest archaeological indications of the domestication of fire in the world.

Evidence of active subsidence at Basiluzzo island (Aeolian islands, southern Italy) inferred from a Roman age wharf

The Aeolian Arc (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy) is one of the most active volcanic areas of the Mediterranean basin, affected by volcanic/hydrothermal and seismic activity. Ancient populations settled this region since historical times, building coastal installations which currently are valuable archaeological indicators of relative sea level changes and vertical land movements. In this study we show and discuss data on the relative sea level change estimated from a submerged wharf of Roman age dated between 50 B.C. and 50 A.D., located at Basiluzzo Island. This structure has been studied through marine surveys and archaeological interpretations and is presently located at a corrected depth of −4.10 ± 0.2 m. We explain this submergence by a cumulative effect of the relative sea level change caused by the regional glacio-hydro-isostatic signal, active since the end of the last glacial maximum, and the local volcano-tectonic land subsidence. Finally, a total subsidence rate of 2.05 ± 0.1 mm/yr−1, with a volcano-tectonic contribution of 1.43 ± 0.1 mm/yr−1 for the last 2 ka BP, is inferred from the comparison against the latest predicted sea level curve for the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, suggesting new evaluations of the volcano-tectonic hazard for this area of the Aeolian islands.

Indigenous African Furnace Types and Slag Composition-Is there a Correlation?

Within variation, three major iron smelting furnaces were used in the Iron Age of sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from the natural draught driven tall shaft to the forced draught powered low shaft and bowl furnaces. These furnace types are, however, mostly known from the ethnographic context. Often, archaeologists are confronted with remnants from the smelting process, forcing them to speculate on the anatomy of the extant furnaces. The presence of multiple fused tuyeres has been used to identify natural draught furnaces in the archaeological record. However, working back from smelting remains such as slag to the furnace type using physical and chemical evidence has generally proved to be ‘undoable’. Thus, when randomly selected, the chances are high that one cannot separate bowl furnace slags from those that formed in their tall or low shaft counterparts. This observation is hardly unexpected; analogous thermodynamics and thermo-chemical reactions governed bloomery smelting irrespective of furnace type. Rehren et al. (2007) have labelled this phenomenon the ‘tyranny of system driven constraints’. In this study, we argue that the hierarchical use of statistical methods may add another layer of evidence which, when coupled to archaeological indicators, may be useful in correlating slag chemistry to furnace types used in antiquity.

Stone-boiling maize with limestone: experimental results and implications for nutrition among SE Utah preceramic groups

Groups living on Cedar Mesa, SE Utah in the late Basketmaker II period (Grand Gulch phase, AD 200–400) were heavily maize-dependent, but lacked beans as a supplemental plant protein, and pottery vessels for cooking. Common occurrence of limestone fragments in their household middens suggests 1) limestone may have been used as the heating element for stone-boiling maize and 2) this practice might have made some maize proteins more available for human nutrition. Experiments examined these possibilities; results indicate that stone-boiling with Cedar Mesa limestone creates an alkaline cooking environment suitable for nixtamalization of maize kernels, and that maize cooked in this fashion shows significant increases in availability of lysine, tryptophan, and methionine. Archaeological limestone fragments from a Grand Gulch phase site show amounts of fragmentation and changes in density consistent with repeated heating. While not conclusive, these data indicate that further research (e.g., examination of archaeological limestone fragments for maize starch grains or phytoliths) is warranted. It is suggested that greater attention be paid to archaeological indications of stone-boiling with limestone among maize-dependent but pre-pottery societies.

A novel piece of Minoan art in Italy: the first spectroscopic study of the wall paintings from Phaistos

Some fragments of wall paintings of Phaistos (Crete), belonging to the Bronze Age, from the Archaeological National Museum of Florence, were analysed to investigate the material composition of their pictorial layers and to explore the pictorial technology. These samples belong to the oldest surviving examples of decorative polychrome painting on plaster from Crete and constitute a further document in the frame of the already known evidences of painted materials from the palatial sites. The wall painting fragments were studied to define the composition of the paint layers and of the plaster used as substrate, and to classify the painting method. The coloured strata were investigated through micro‐Raman analyses by acquiring the vibrational spectra on different points selected for every hue, whereas for the plaster, different techniques were employed such as optical microscopy, X‐ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. In accordance with similar Aegean Bronze painted plasters, the obtained results show a rather homogenous colour palette mostly made of mineral pigments, which recur in the different tones in all the fragments. The absence of organic binders and the possibility to differentiate calcite grains present in the painting layers from that present in the plaster underneath were indicative of fresco–secco technique. On the whole, the obtained results could be considered as valuable archaeological indicators for the contribution they could offer to the comprehension of the painting techniques and the materials used in Crete during the Medium Minoan period. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Shuidonggou site complex: new excavations and implications for the earliest Late Paleolithic in North China

The initial Late Paleolithic, said to appear between 40 and 30 kya in eastern Asia, is defined by the appearance of many innovations. These archaeological indicators include the appearance of more refined stone tool making techniques (e.g., include the appearance of blade and microblade technology), complex hearth construction, use of pigments and personal ornamentation, as well as worked faunal implements such as bone and antler tools. We report here new findings from a multidisciplinary research project conducted at the Shuidonggou (Choei-tong-keou) site complex in northern China, a series of localities that date from the initial Late Paleolithic to the Neolithic.Six new localities (SDG7–12) were discovered and five localities [SDG2 (previously identified) and SDG7–9 and 12] were excavated, yielding more than 50,000 stone artifacts, fauna, ostrich eggshell beads, and hearths. Dating results suggest that human occupation of the Shuidonggou area occurred during the Late Pleistocene to Middle Holocene (∼32,000–6000 BP). Some sites are characterized by small, irregular flakes, casually retouched tools [modified or informally retouched tools (i.e., non-standardized tools with sporadic retouch which was not well controlled)], and small numbers of blades or no blades. Others lithic assemblages are dominated by blades and microblades. At two sites, higher quality or exotic raw materials were exploited, but at the majority of sites locally-available river cobbles were used. In addition to blades, microblades and hearths, more than 80 finely-perforated and polished ostrich egg-shell beads, mostly colored with red ochre, were recovered from three sites. Several worked bone needles and an awl were also uncovered from the youngest site, SDG12, in deposits dating to c. 13,000 cal BP. The implications for the initial appearance of the Late Paleolithic in China and movement of modern human populations into North China are discussed.

Evidence of vertical tectonic uplift at Briatico (Calabria, Italy) inferred from Roman age maritime archaeological indicators

Calabria is one of the most complex geological regions of the Mediterranean basin, which experienced large earthquakes and uplift and is still undergoing active tectonics. Along its coasts are located archaeological sites that can be used as powerful indicators of the relative vertical movements between land and sea since their construction. This paper presents and discusses data on the relative sea-level change as estimated from maritime archaeological indicators of the last ∼2.0 ka BP existing along the Tyrrhenian coast of Briatico. These sites still show the remnants of a Roman age fish tank and a submerged breakwater about 320 m long.The palaeo sea level has been obtained measuring the functional elevation of the significant archaeological markers. Their elevation was compared against the latest predicted sea level curve for the Holocene along the Tyrrhenian coast of Calabria. As this coastal area is affected by significant and continuous vertical tectonic uplift during Pleistocene, the data show the counterbalance between coastal uplift and relative sea level change caused by the glacio-hydro-isostasy, acting since the construction of these archaeological sites. The sum of these movements determined an about null relative sea level change for this location. These data are in contrast with other part of the tectonically stable areas of the Mediterranean and provide evidence that crustal uplift continued in the last 1806 ± 50 y at a rate of 0.65 mm/y.

Sea level changes since the Middle Ages along the coast of the Adriatic Sea: The case of St. Nicholas Basilica, Bari, Southern Italy

During the last decade, several papers have been published to estimate the relative sea level change from coastal archaeological indicators of the last 3.4 ka BP in many locations of the Italian coasts and the Mediterranean Sea. The use of the archaeological information has been poorly focused for the Middle Ages, due to the few available coastal installations for this period, thus not allowing precise sea level estimation for the last 1000 years, to complement the instrumental data available for the last 100–120 years. This study discusses an archaeological marker of the Middle Ages, used to reconstruct the story of the sea level changes in the last 1000 years, at the St. Nicholas Basilica, built in 1087 AD along the coast of Bari (Apulia, southern Italy). The elevations of the ancient floor levels of the crypt underwent repeated flooding due to a continuous rising of the groundwater table, which required restoration and uplifting of pavements between 1087 and 1956 to keep them dry. The palaeo-sea levels have been obtained by measuring the position of the groundwater table, the elevation of which is mainly driven by sea level since the time of the construction of the Basilica.The elevation of the archaeological markers and the water table were compared against the latest predicted sea level curve for the Holocene along the coast of Bari. As this coastal area is unaffected by significant vertical tectonic motion over the last 125 ky, the data detail the timing of the relative sea level rise since the Middle Ages and can be used to improve the predicted sea level curve for this region for the last 1000 years.

Coastline Modifications in Sardinia Starting from Archaeological Data: A Progress Report

This paper uses a combination of archaeological, geomorphologic and radiometric data from the coast of Sardinia, in Italy, to purpose a reconstruction of the sea-level and coastal changes during the recent period in the whole island. The archaeological remains have been used as one of indicators to interpret the recent movements, uplift or subsidence, long the coastal tracts of the island; the evidences are represented by quarries, megalithic buildings, submerged towns, roman villas, the latter by harbor structures, Medieval testifies and other ruins like the wrecks for a long span. In summary, the comparison between the geomorphologic evolution, archaeological indicators and radiometric data suggests a different sea-level uplifting corresponding to the different Pleistocenic evolution in some places of the island; in some cases there is an evident correspondence between the submerged remains and the presence of the grabens that characterizing the geological structure of the Sardinia. The submerged archaeological indicators are intended to identify the level of the sea, in most situation, they indicate the presence of a sea level lower than their base subject to the tidal range at the time which can be only be approximate. However, the presence of a single type of indicator does not know the precise level of the sea; in the same way it is very difficult to distinguish between eustatic and tectonic components. The combination and correlation between different data at the regional level is the only possibility to have an interpretative hypothesis for movements. Unfortunately it is rare to have all three indicators in one place. The results are given in recognition of areas of greatest subsidence, evidenced by some ancient cities, with the more stable areas and those that behave differently showing that even in historic and protohistoric Sardinia, while considered a stable land, suffer a continuous weak lifting or subsidence comforted by archaeological data showing that, at the same time, the progression of the phenomenon is different.

New evidence for a Roman fort and vicus at Mizda (Tripolitania)

AbstractThe existence of a Roman military fort at the town of Mizda, about 150 km south of Tripoli, has long been assumed, in spite of scarce archaeological indications. A field survey, conducted recently in the area around the old town of Mizda, yielded an assemblage of pottery dating to the mid and late Roman periods. The pottery provides the first unequivocal evidence for a Roman settlement around (and beneath) the old town, most probably in the form of a fort and vicus.

Dynamics of genetic and morphological variability within Neandertals.

Paleogenomics may suggest changes to the way anthropologists have discussed the dynamics and morphological diversity among Neandertals. Genetic comparisons show that later Neandertals had relatively low autosomal genetic variation compared to recent humans. The known mitochondrial sample from Neandertals covers a broader geographic and temporal range, and shows greater diversity. This review addresses how genetic data compare to morphological and archaeological evidence about Neandertal variation and dynamics. Traditional views emphasized the morphological differences between western and eastern Neandertal populations, and between early and later Neandertals. Genomes broadly support these groupings, without resolving the outstanding question of the affinities of specimens from southwest Asia. However, the pattern of genetic variation appears to reject a long, in situ transformation of Neandertal groups over time, suggesting instead a more rapid process of regional dispersal and partial population replacement. Archaeological indicators sample dynamics on a much finer timescale than morphological or genetic evidence, and point to dispersal and turnover among Neandertals on a regional scale. In this way, genetic evidence may provide a bridge between the timescales relevant to morphological and archaeological comparisons. New ways of looking at the morphology of Neandertals may yield a better picture of their interactions and movements.