Archaeological Data Research Articles

분청사기 가마의 연대에 대한 고고지자기학적 연구

Baked earth samples were collected from 15 kilns at 9 sites among the surveyed Buncheong kiln sites. Afterwards, archaeomagnetic analysis was conducted to estimate the age of the kilns. Except for one kiln, reliable data with an error range of about 10 to 20 years were obtained. Since the margin of error is relatively narrow, the time difference between the kilns is not expected to be large, but the relative order of the Buncheong kilns was organized through the date of archaeomagnetic measurement data in this paper. The range of dates established based on archaeomagnetic measurements is from 1340 to 1410 (the early 14th to mid-15th centuries, including the error range), which is older than estimates from the late 14th to mid-15th centuries (about 1390 to 1480) based on archaeological investigations. Although some of the kilns showed little difference in archaeomagnetic and archaeological dating, many others were dated to about 50 years earlier than the archaeological survey suggested. In considering the causes of this discrepancy, the possibility of raising archaeological dating estimates by about 50 years and the possibility of age errors that can occur when dating is estimated through the Japanese standard curve were discussed. If the accumulation of archaeomagnetic data on various contemporary baked earth remains and comparison with other natural scientific dating methods are made, the archaeomagnetic data presented in this paper can be used to complete a more detailed Korean archaeomagnetic standard curve of the construction period of the Buncheong kiln.

Five centuries of consanguinity, isolation, health, and conflict in Las Gobas: A Northern Medieval Iberian necropolis.

Between the 8th and 11th centuries CE, the Iberian Peninsula underwent profound upheaval due to the Umayyad invasion against the Visigoths, resulting in population shifts and lasting demographic impacts. Our understanding of this period is hindered by limited written sources and few archaeogenetic studies. We analyzed 33 individuals from Las Gobas, a necropolis in northern Spain, spanning the 7th to 11th centuries. By combining archaeological and osteological data with kinship, metagenomics, and ancestry analyses, we investigate conflicts, health, and demography of these individuals. We reveal intricate family relationships and genetic continuity within a consanguineous population while also identifying several zoonoses indicative of close interactions with animals. Notably, one individual was infected with a variola virus phylogenetically clustering with the northern European variola complex between ~885 and 1000 CE. Last, we did not detect a significant increase of North African or Middle East ancestries over time since the Islamic conquest of Iberia, possibly because this community remained relatively isolated.

The Involvement of the Pechenegs in the Ethnopolitical Processes of the Southern Russian Steppes

Examining the involvement of the Pechenegs in the ethnopolitical processes of the Southern Russian steppes is crucial for understanding the formation of the ethnic and political map of Eastern Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries. The impact of the Pechenegs on the political situation in this region remains significant for historians and ethnologists. The purpose of this study is to analyze the role of the Pechenegs in the ethnopolitical processes of the Southern Russian steppes from the mid-10th century to the mid-11th century. The research focuses on the Pechenegs' contributions to ethnopolitical changes and their interactions with other peoples and states in the region. The study utilizes the works of prominent historians such as N. M. Karamzin, P. A. Golubovsky, S. M. Solov'ev and G. Manuku-Adameshteanu, as well as research by Turkish and Hungarian scholars. The analysis is based on primary sources, including chronicles and archaeological data, as well as secondary historical materials. The study addresses the origin of the name "Pecheneg" and their early homeland. Historians like Tatishchev, Karamzin, and Solovyov present different views on the origins and initial territories of the Pechenegs. Tatishchev associates the Pechenegs with the Sarmatians, while Karamzin and Solovyov identify them as Turkic peoples. The research examines the Pechenegs' influence on ethnopolitical processes in the Southern Russian steppes, including their conflicts with the Bulgars, Hungarians, Khazars, and the Rus state. Golubovsky and Manuku-Adameshteanu highlight the Pechenegs' significant impact on the Hungarians and other regional peoples. The article also explores the Pechenegs' settlement in modern Hungary and their roles as both vassals of the Kievan state and independent political actors in the region's political life. The article concludes that the Pechenegs played a significant role in the ethnopolitical processes of the Southern Russian steppes during the 10th and 11th centuries. Despite losing their political power by the mid-11th century, they had a considerable impact. Further research is needed to fully understand their role in the history of Eastern Europe.

Wilyakali and archaeologists collaborating to map the journey of the Bronzewing Pigeon, Broken Hill, western New South Wales, Australia

ABSTRACTThis paper describes a collaboration between Wilyakali Indigenous Custodians and a group of archaeologists. This collaboration has generated a shared and integrated understanding of the cultural landscape, Ancestral Creation Histories, and archaeology of the Broken Hill region of western New South Wales. The Broken Hill landscape is ancient beyond imagination, and complex geological processes/Creation Histories have resulted in distinctive landscape features and resources including quartz suitable for stone artefact manufacture. Wilyakali stone knappers employed specialised and varied technological processes to overcome the diverse and sometimes intractable nature of the quartz material, resulting in efficient use of this local stone resource. Wilyakali interpret the Country through their knowledge of the travelling sacred Bronzewing Pigeon and its creation of landscape features and resources such as quartz and water. Empirical archaeological data complement traditional knowledge, with the two ways of knowing coming together to reconstruct a nuanced interpretation of the cultural landscape. This shared narrative has had ongoing and inter‐generational benefits to the Wilyakali people, with knowledge communicated to younger generations by Elders, enabling them to interpret both the archaeology and Ancestral Creation Histories with confidence. This paper also highlights the inconsistent recognition of Indigenous ways of knowing and connection in Aboriginal cultural heritage assessments in the region.

Using Parasite Analysis to Investigate the Pathoecology of the Inhabitants of the City of Berezov in Western Siberia (Sixteenth–Nineteenth Centuries)

ABSTRACT The first Russian settlers developed relatively large cities and a new phenomenon called ‘urban habitat’ to the north of Western Siberia. This article presents the results of a study on soil samples taken from the cultural layer of Berezov city during excavations of the city’s kremlin, or civic centre, posad, or town settlement area, and the farmstead within the posad. The samples are dated from the XVI to the end of the XVIII century. Examination of the samples revealed 12 types of parasite eggs from both humans and animals. The city's cultural layer was found to be relatively highly contaminated with parasite eggs. The species composition of parasite eggs in samples collected from the cultural layer varied according to land use, i.e. whether public, communal, or livestock, or sanitary condition in Berezov city. An analysis of historical and archaeological data enabled the reconstruction of certain nutritional aspects of the population in Berezov city at the time. Additionally, certain cultural and abiotic factors contributing to the high parasite infestation of humans and domestic animals were identified, and similarities can be found in the research of other Russian cities of Siberia in the XVI–XIX centuries.

Priene, a Monumental Disaster in the Aegean: Digital Approaches to the Doric Stoa’s and the Theater’s Lost Evidence

This paper uses digital approaches to investigate Priene’s (Turkey) archaeological area. The city was built ex novo, after a catastrophic earthquake around 350 BC, on a new site facing the Mediterranean Sea. The city suffered a slow decline following centuries of development and was abandoned after the 12th century. The remains of Priene were discovered in the 17th century, and different excavations and studies have been conducted in the last few centuries. The city’s remains have been studied from various archaeological and historical points of view. It is documented that the city suffered different earthquakes during its existence, as demonstrated by the partial restorations and damage patterns visible within the remains. This contribution offers a methodological and interdisciplinary approach for studying and enhancing archaeological heritage. This paper presents the preliminary results of the first comprehensive digital acquisition of the Aegean city of Priene. The digitization approaches here described focused on digital acquisition and 3D modeling restitution in the form of virtual reconstructions of two monumental buildings: the Doric Stoa near the Temple of Athena Polias and the Theater. The procedure was complementary to the analysis and comprehension of previous numerous studies carried out by British and German institutions, where digital acquisition and restitution techniques have led to the validation of previously obtained results. For the first time, digital models have been used as tools for accessing heterogeneous knowledge, and they have been incorporated into the discourse of archeological studies. Indeed, the interdisciplinary team went beyond archaeological data to attempt to digitally reconstruct monumental complexes and conduct preliminary structural evaluations scientifically.

The city of Orik in the Writings of Ancient Authors and Archaeological Records

The ancient Illyrian port city of Orik, located in what is now Albania, was an important maritime and Cultural Centre in the Adriatic region. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of all available ancient textual evidence of Orik, tracing its evolution from the 5th century BCE to late antiquity. The examination of these written sources is crucial for reconstructing the history and topography of Orik, which cannot be fully identified only by archaeological data. The main purpose of the study is to systematically identify, collect, and analyse every mention of Orik in ancient studies, including the studies of Herodotus, Pseudo-Skilax, Strabo, Titus Livius. To obtain precise and objective conclusions, a rigorous methodology was applied, which includes source criticism, comparative analysis, and correlation with archaeological data. The study provides valuable information about the evolution of Orik’s functions and status over time, its fortifications, economic activities, religious objects, and more. It allows for tracing how the knowledge of ancient geographers about this border town developed and how Greco-Roman authors portrayed it in their narratives. The most innovative contribution of the study is the first comprehensive investigation of the entire body of textual evidence about Orik. This holistic synthesis enables a deeper reconstruction of this influential Adriatic settlement. The results enhance understanding of ancient Illyria and the complex dynamics of its Hellenization. They are beneficial for related research and education. Overall, by systematically collecting and critically analysing all available ancient sources, this study offers a multi-layered portrait of Orik as a strategic Greek colony, Illyrian stronghold, maritime trade hub, and crossroads of cultural fusion in the Adriatic.

The role of emerging elites in the formation and development of communities after the fall of the Roman Empire

Elites played a pivotal role in the formation of post-Roman Europe on both macro- and microlevels during the Early Medieval period. History and archaeology have long focused on their description and identification based on written sources or through their archaeological record. We provide a different perspective on this topic by integrating paleogenomic, archaeological, and isotopic data to gain insights into the role of one such elite group in a Langobard period community near Collegno, Italy dated to the 6-8th centuries CE. Our analysis of 28 newly sequenced genomes together with 24 previously published ones combined with isotope (Sr, C, N) measurements revealed that this community was established by and organized around a network of biologically and socially related individuals likely composed of multiple elite families that over time developed into a single extended pedigree. The community also included individuals with diverse genetic ancestries, maintaining its diversity by integrating newcomers and groups in later stages of its existence. This study highlights how shifts in political power and migration impacted the formation and development of a small rural community within a key region of the former Western Roman Empire after its dissolution and the emergence of a new kingdom. Furthermore, it suggests that Early Medieval elites had the capacity to incorporate individuals from varied backgrounds and that these elites were the result of (political) agency rather than belonging to biologically homogeneous groups.

Re-examination of the Pre-Qin History of the Records of the Historian and Sima Qian’s View of Historiography from the Archaeological Perspective

In recent years, the remarkable development of archaeology, especially the excavation and publication of pre-Qin and Qin-Han documents, has provided new materials and opportunities for the study of ancient history and deepened the understanding of the Records of the Historian. Comparison of the excavated materials and the contents of the Records of the Historian reveals mutual corroboration, as well as discrepancies and doubts, prompting the academic community to reassess the research results of pre-Qin history and the academic history of the Records of the Historian. This article focuses on the pre-Qin part of the Records of the Historian, combining literature and archaeological data to explore its authenticity, and comparing the records of the Historian with the excavated data to discuss the origin of the Qin people, the harsh system and the death of the Qin, etc. The author also analyzes the life of Sima Qian and his academic and political environment, aiming to comprehensively re-conceptualize the history of the pre-Qin period and the scholarly value of the Records of the Historian and Sima Qian.

Within the Range of the Watchtowers: Nature and Purpose of Late Bronze Age Hilltop Buildings in the Blagoevgrad Basin, Southwestern Bulgaria

Abstract The Struma/Strymon River valley, due to its key geographical position, carving a corridor in mountain massifs, served as a natural communication route between the north: south-eastern and central Balkans and further on – Central Europe, and the south: the coast of the Aegean Sea. The lack of detailed studies of the settlement pattern have not allowed for complete characterization of its role in the cultural contacts of prehistoric communities. Fortunately, this state of research is changing, due to the carrying out intensive field surveying, and recording of archaeological sites. As a result of it, evidence of the flourishing of settlements in the Late Bronze Age and the transition period between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age were recorded. In addition to flat settlements, “atypical” sites were also identified – called the Kamenska Chuka-type, named after the first discovered site of this type, located in naturally defensive and hard-to-reach places with a wide observation views. From the very moment of discovery, researchers have been speculating about the functions of these archaeological sites. The aim of this article is to attempt to explain some issues – nature and purpose related to Kamenska Chuka-type sites and verify the theses put forward by researchers of the topic, using geographic information system (GIS) technology and freely available spatial data, combining them with traditional archaeological data.

An updated reconstruction of Campi Flegrei caldera (southern Italy) ground deformation history and its interaction with the human sphere since Roman time

Since the 19th century, many scientists have tried to reconstruct the ground motions that occurred in the Campi Flegrei caldera, one of the most dangerous volcanos in the Mediterranean area. This study aims to assess the joint effects of vertical ground movements and anthropic forcing along the coasts of this volcanic area. A huge dataset of hundreds of archeo-stratigraphic boreholes was coupled with direct and indirect surveys of the main underwater archaeological sites scattered along the whole coastal sector and with the reinterpretation of bibliographic sources. Clear evidence of a differential volcano-tectonic behaviour (highlighted for the first time in this study) led us to divide the study area into three coastal stretches with homogeneous vertical ground movements. In each sector, a new relative sea-level (RSL) curve was reconstructed, by interpreting our stratigraphic and archaeological data in terms of SL markers covering a wider timespan compared to the previous studies, from the first Roman urbanization to the present day. The comparison between RSL curves and GIA models allowed estimating vertical ground movements (See Supplementary material 2) that occurred along the coast with decimetres accuracy. For each of the 5 recognized phase of uplift or subsidence, we also studied the subsequent effects in terms of coastal geomorphological change, and advantages or negative impacts on ancient human activities. We measured an overall subsiding trend that brought the RSL from −12 ± 1 m (4th century BC) to 7 ± 0.2 m during three different episodes between 5th and 15th centuries (1450–450 y BP), which was interrupted by short-lived falls (less of 100 years) of RSL. During the phases of RSL fall and/or volcano-tectonic stability, detected for the first time in the eastern and western part of the caldera (1st-2nd century AD and 3rd-4th century AD), a basinward shift of the coastline created newly emerged land even at the base of the local sea cliffs, where shore platforms emerged, favouring intense phases of urbanization on them along the Baia – Miseno sector and at the footslope of Rione Terra. This trend also favoured the closure of the Lucrino lagoon with an extended spit bar during the 2nd century BC, allowing the establishment of a large oyster farming system belonging to Sergio Orata. On the contrary, the subsiding phases resulted in the flooding of coastal areas and anthropic structures such as villas, nymphaea and ports inducing the construction of coastal protection structures. In the extreme case of Portus Julius, subsidence led to the abandonment of the military port and its move to nearby Miseno.

The AD 536/540 climate event in Sweden – a review

The middle of the first millennium AD in Sweden witnessed significant changes in the archaeological record, prompting various discussions about the underlying causes. This paper reviews the research developments surrounding the global climate cooling, which was caused by severe volcanic eruptions in AD 536/540 and is referred to as the Late Antique Little Ice Age or Fimbulwinter, and its potential impacts, with a specific focus on Swedish Iron Age societies, drawing upon published climatic and archaeological data. Furthermore, it discusses the research gaps that impede a comprehensive understanding of the potential relationship between the AD 536/540 event and socioeconomic changes in Iron Age Sweden. Additionally, it suggests that isotopic analysis will offer additional insights and help bridge the research gap.

Twenty-first-century light over the Indo-European homeland: triangulating language, archaeology and genetics

The reviewed volumes represent the past and future of triangulating human prehistory. Both works address the integration of the knowledge embedded in the Indo-European group of languages into the interpretation of archaeological and genetic data, but approach this very differently. By enlisting the expertise of scholars from the three different fields, with 22 contributions from more than 40 scholars from more than 10 different countries, The Indo-European puzzle revisited is both a seminal work and a resounding commentary on the, by its very nature, limited perspectives voiced by Jean-Paul Demoule as a sole archaeologist author of his book The Indo-Europeans. The title of the former is based on the subtitle of Colin Renfrew's Archaeology and language: the puzzle of Indo-European origins (1987), another archaeologist's foray into historical linguistics.

Ayahuasca Tourism: Curating Authenticity in Transformative Times (Field Note)

ABSTRACT: Motivated by multiple factors collectively related to what is often termed the Psychedelic Renaissance, people increasingly consume psychedelics for recreational, medicinal, psychotherapeutic, and even spiritual or religious reasons. In the broader psychedelic ecosystem, ayahuasca (a psychoactive "tea" made from plants indigenous to the Amazon jungle) is becoming one of the more popular psychoactive substances. Ayahuasca churches, retreat centers, and informal "circles" are forming in multiple countries around the world; however, many people who want to drink ayahuasca travel to or near the Amazon, where they seek what they deem an authentic shamanic ayahuasca experience. The lure of authenticity draws people to the Amazon, where they encounter a rather diverse ayahuasca ecosystem. The limited historical and archaeological data suggest that this diversity predates colonialism; however, various factors including the tourists themselves are now agents of change.

Deep antiquity of seagrasses supporting European eel fisheries in the western Baltic.

Protecting ocean habitats is critical for international efforts to mitigate climate impacts and ensure food security, but the ecological data upon which policy makers base conservation and restoration targets often reflect ecosystems that have already been deeply impacted by anthropogenic change. The archaeological record is a biomolecular archive offering a temporal scope that cannot be gathered from historical records or contemporary fieldwork. Insights from biogeochemical and osteometric analyses of fish bones, combined with context from contemporary field studies, show how prehistoric fisheries in the western Baltic relied on seagrass meadows. European eels (Anguilla anguilla) harvested by Mesolithic and Neolithic peoples over millennia showed a strong fidelity for eelgrass foraging habitats, an ecological relationship that remains largely overlooked today, demonstrating the value of protecting these habitats. These data open new windows onto ecosystem- and species-level behaviours, highlighting the need for wider incorporation of archaeological data in strategies for protecting our oceans.

Integrated Shallow Geophysical Surveys at Two Caddo Period Archaeological Sites within the Limits of a Water Reservoir in Northeastern Texas, USA

The newly constructed Bois d’Arc Lake Reservoir in Fannin County, Texas, USA, inevitably flooded a large ground surface area (67.34 km2) when the reservoir began impounding water in April 2021. Inside this (now) flooded area, land-based archaeological data recovery investigations discovered and documented several archaeological sites, now registered in the state of Texas; though, only two neighboring sites, namely, 41FN178 and 41FN244, are examined here. The first phase of archaeological testing at these sites included shovel testing, test unit excavations, and geoarchaeological trenching that yielded archaeological artifacts suggesting that Middle Caddo Indian peoples (AD 1200–1400) might have occupied this landscape. As the sites were recognized before the reservoir’s impoundment phase, this merited a non-invasive, non-destructive, high-resolution near-surface geophysical study to map strategic areas within sites 41FN178 and 41FN244 that might yield potential shallow targets of archaeological context. The adopted geophysical survey comprised 3D direct current electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) and land horizontal magnetic gradiometry (HMG), each mapping a total surface area of 2133 and 15,640 m2, respectively. The combination of 3D ERI and land HMG surveys was instrumental in rapidly mapping the horizontal and vertical extent of shallowly buried anomalies within a large area prior to the completion of the dam and the beginning of water impoundment. Based on the geophysical insights, the outline of several Caddo houses with functional internal and external features (e.g., burnt cooking surfaces, storage pits, refuse pits, fired soil, ditches, a dump site, and a compound fence) are thought to exist within the uppermost 2 m of the Quaternary stratigraphy at both sites. At site 41FN244, 3D ERI found numerous resistive anomalies surrounding a conductive anomaly, collectively interpreted as a group of post-holes surrounding the remains of a Caddo house’s inner clay floor. It also found a cluster of several resistive anomalies interpreted as midden or middens. The HMG survey carried across areas from which archaeological test units also yielded positive findings, at sites 41FN178 and 41FN244, identified numerous scattered monopolar and dipolar anomalies interpreted as post-molds of Caddo houses, compound enclosures or fences, and adjacent middens. Archaeological excavations guided by the geophysical results yielded significant cultural material and post-mold features at site 244, which validate the geophysical interpretation in a preliminary context. Additionally, several dispersed magnetic anomalies are thought to be shallowly buried hearths, burn cooking surfaces, storage pits, and ditches. The mapped magnetic anomalies agree with the location and distribution of previously found archaeological artifacts and the extent of resistive and conductive resistivity anomalies. Follow-up archaeological excavations of these geophysical anomalies have preliminarily confirmed interpretations.

Consumption patterns in prehistoric Europe are consistent with modern economic behaviour.

Have humans always sold and purchased things? This seemingly trivial question exposes one of the most conspicuous blind spots in our understanding of cultural evolution: the emergence of what we perceive today as 'modern' economic behaviour. Here we test the hypothesis that consumption patterns in prehistoric Europe (around 2300-800 BCE) can be explained by standard economic theory, predicting that everyday expenses are log-normally distributed and correlated to supply, demand and income. On the basis of a large database of metal objects spanning northern and southern Europe (n = 23,711), we identify metal fragments as money, address them as proxies of consumption and observe that, starting around 1500 BCE, their mass values become log-normally distributed. We simulate two alternative scenarios and show that: (1) random behaviour cannot produce the distributions observed in the archaeological data and (2) modern economic behaviour provides the best-fitting model for prehistoric consumption.

Changing with the times: From agricultural potential to spatially explicit reconstructions of past land use

Past land-use reconstructions are a key tool for studying long-term human ecodynamics and addressing pressing questions about the origins and evolutionary dynamics of the Anthropocene. In particular, agricultural landcover reconstructions are vital for understanding long-term human-environment dynamics. Most past agricultural land-use models, however, rely heavily on modelling assumptions, make limited use of known archaeological site locations to constrain or inform their estimates and tend to be limited to general estimates of percentages of plant types within catchments around pollen trapping lakes. The lack of information outside catchment areas and low spatial resolution even within catchments constrain the utility of these models. To address this problem, we propose a new approach that combines archaeological predictive modelling with pollen-based agricultural landcover reconstructions to produce more accurate, spatially explicit past landcover estimates. Here, we present the results of a case study deploying the new approach to produce improved past landcover maps for a region in the Western Taurus Mountains, southwestern Turkey. The study area surrounds Sagalassos, an antique urban centre with a regional settlement history encompassing nine millennia. We produced five archaeological predictive models for the study region using the ‘Locally Adaptive Models of Archaeological Potential’ (LAMAP) method spanning the Hellenistic through Late Ottoman period. We then combined those predictive surfaces with ‘Regional Estimates of VEgetation Abundance from Large Sites’ (REVEALS) pollen landcover reconstructions for the same periods based on pollen from sediment cores extracted from three catchments within the study area. Lastly, we compared the resulting hybrid landcover models to the archaeological record using data not used to make the predictions. We found that the hybrid landcover model aligned very well with the known extents of agricultural land-use from the study area. These results indicate that the proposed approach is a viable way to combine pollen-based landcover models with archaeological data and produce more accurate, empirically-based landcover reconstructions reflecting real human activity in the past.

Flavours of Pictish life: using starch grains and phytoliths to trace late Roman and early medieval culinary traditions

Understanding the seasonal and daily aspects of late Roman and early medieval life in northern Britain has been hugely challenging due to a dearth of excavated sites and poor preservation of settlement features where identified. This problem has been compounded by a very limited historical record for this era and region. But a new generation of archaeological data has begun to illuminate the Picts, a group first mentioned in late Roman sources and one that went on to become the dominant kingdom of early medieval northern Britain. These new datasets include innovative microbotanical analyses that can shed light on Pictish foodways, including culinary traditions, and specific plant foods consumed. This study employs non-destructive microbotanical analysis of pot sherds from Pictish settlement contexts and human teeth from Pictish burials, examining the presence of starch grains and phytoliths from six prominent sites spanning the Pictish period (AD∼300 – 900). Our research confirms that cereals such as oats and barley were the primary plants cultivated, cooked, and consumed in northeast Scotland during the late Roman Iron Age and early medieval period. These microbotanical residues add detailed evidence to previous studies of isotopic, pollen, and trace macrobotanical proxies, but also offer fresh insights into the potential composition of specific Pictish meal types. The approaches outlined here have greatly expanded and enriched our understanding of the dietary habits and lifestyle of the Picts, an important, but under-researched group.

Modelling Christianisation: A Geospatial Analysis of the Archaeological Data on the Rural Church Network of Hungary in the 11th–12th Centuries. By Mária Vargha.

Modelling Christianisation: A Geospatial Analysis of the Archaeological Data on the Rural Church Network of Hungary in the 11th–12th Centuries. By Mária Vargha.