Archaeological Complex Research Articles

LIDAR INVESTIGATIONS OF HLYNSKE ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMPLEX

The identification, analysis and research of archeological sites is a difficult task, especially in areas covered with dense vegetation. The study of sites in such an area is limited by a number of factors. This applies to the vegetation cover, as well as the size and state of preservation of the archeological sites themselves. The difficulties in the documentation, survey, and material collection increase in areas characterized by dense understory vegetation. The presence of disparate components of archaeological complexes, in such conditions, further complicates their identification on the ground. To solve these research problems, remote sensing based on LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) can be fruitfully applied to achieve unique performance in detecting ancient settlements.
 In this paper, LiDAR scanning were applied to the medieval site near Hlynske village (Poltava region, Central Ukraine), selected for this study because it is located on a hilly area with complex topography and thick vegetation cover surveying archaeological features and remains, in densely vegetated areas.
 According to the paleo landscape and hypsometric analysis of the digital terrain model (DTM), the fortified parts of the settlements separated by ravines are evidence of direct anthropogenic impact on the relief. These ravines are the remnants of ditches that have increased their area due to erosion processes. Other ravines that divide the archeological complex into parts are the remains of trails, paths or roads. They appeared as a result of economic activity of the Romny culture population in the 9th century. Fragments of spindle whorls, weapons and personal ornaments were found in these places, which were probably lost by ancient inhabitants while traveling on these routes. The system of ravines, which is fixed to the west and south-west of the Small hillfort, also belongs to the category of ancient roads that connected Opishnya, Budyshche and Hlynske.
 Thus, as a result of the analysis of the DTM, information on microtopography and features of landscape formation on the monument was obtained. As a whole, the investigations allowed the discovery of an anthropogenic landscape from the 9th century and the detection of an unknown extra urban area abandoned in the Late Middle Ages.

Genetic analysis of a bronze age individual from Ulug-depe (Turkmenistan).

The Oxus Civilisation (or Bactrio-Margian Archaeological Complex, BMAC) was the main archaeological culture of the Bronze Age in southern Central Asia. Paleogenetic analyses were previously conducted mainly on samples from the eastern part of BMAC. The population associated with BMAC descends from local Chalcolithic populations, with some outliers of steppe or South-Asian descent. Here, we present new genome-wide data for one individual from Ulug-depe (Turkmenistan), one of the main BMAC sites, located at the southwestern edge of the BMAC. We demonstrate that this individual genetically belongs to the BMAC cluster. Using this genome, we confirm that modern Indo-Iranian–speaking populations from Central Asia derive their ancestry from BMAC populations, with additional gene flow from the western and the Altai steppes in higher proportions among the Tajiks than the Yagnobi ethnic group.

EFFICIENT THREE-DIMENSIONAL SURVEY TECHNIQUES AND THEIR COMPARISON IN OPEN SOFTWARE IN THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL TEST SITE OF "NINFEO MAGGIORE" AND "NINFEO MINORE" OF FORMIA (LATINA, ITALY)

Abstract. In Europe and beyond, the cultural and archaeological heritage may have considerable extensions of hundreds of square metres if not kilometres. It is then necessary to study highly efficient techniques able , at the same time, to maintain centimetric accuracy. In these contexts, the SLAM technique can be an efficient solution. We tested the latter in a survey of a portion of the so-called Roman Villa of Caposele, also known as Villa Rubino in Formia, (Italy): the “Ninfeo Maggiore” and “Ninfeo Minore” (Major and Minor nymphaeum). The two structures had to be surveyed for both conservation and study purposes and to allow a virtual visit, which is particularly important since they are located inside a private property. The structure is complex, with a succession of rooms and environments in an archaeological complex extending approximately 480 metres in an east-west direction and approximately 50 metres in a south-north direction. We decided to survey both nymphaea with the “GEOSLAM Zeb Horizon”, also surveying all the internal connecting rooms and corridors between them. Both nymphaea were also surveyed with a “Faro” terrestrial laser scanning, to allow comparison. To verify the validity of the SLAM on the outside, a survey was carried out using a DJI Matrix drone with laser scanning. The comparison showed very limited deviations whose statistical validation is in progress, demonstrating that the SLAM technique can advantageously be used in such vast archaeological complexes where the efficiency and completeness of the survey is more important than the millimetric accuracy.

THE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE VYPOVZIV HILL-FORT

This paper deals to the hill-fort of the Vypovziv archaeological complex. The materials of the 2010—2021 from different ages discovered during the excavations are published.
 The Old Rus hill-fort of a rounded shape is located at the tip of the cape, which rises 3—4 m above the terrace. It has small dimensions (75 Ч 95 m) on the outer edge of the Old Rus ramparts and about 30 Ч 40 m on the inner side (its own site). The remains of ramparts that once surrounded the settlement around the entire perimeter are now almost completely blown away (the fortifications themselves occupy the area of natural dune which consists entirely of loose sand), and only under the soles the moat rather is guessed than visible. From the northern and southern sides the moat reaches the terrace slopes and creates ramps that gently descend to the floodplain of the old Desna riverbed. From the open side also passed the moat which is now practically covered with the same sand (it can barely be traced along the slope of the hill-fort). The settlement first attracted the attention of researchers from the end of the 19th century (1889). The site was gradually surveyed during the 20th century by various scholars but in-patient research was not conducted here before 2009.
 Since 2009, the expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the Chernihiv Shevchenko National Pedagogical University started here the stationary works, which continued permanently until recent times.
 The oldest materials originating from the territory of the settlement are antiquities of the late Neolithic period and Bronze Age. They are quite few and mostly occur in a re-deposited state. Separate pits and small areas of cultural layers of these periods located under the Old Rus layers, at the level of the pre-virgin soil, were discovered on the hill-fort site.
 During the research of the area of hill-fort a few fragments of pots from the Early Iron Age and the Early Slavic period were found. However, no objects of this time were found here. The main cultural layers on the hill-fort are ones of the Old Rus period of the late 9th — 10th centuries. It is at this time that defensive structures appeared on the hill-fort,the site is built up, which over time undergoes re-building and reconstruction. The time of the existence of the Old Rus settlement can be divided into several stages during the late 9th — 10th centuries. It is notable that there are no buildings of the 12th—13th centuries on the Vypovziv settlement. This proves that the settlement was not used at this time.
 The Late Middle Ages and early modern times were practically not reflected in the horizons of the complex. However, Vypovziv constantly appears in written sources of the post-Mongol era, starting from the end of the 13th century. In general, from 2010 to 2017, 15 burials of the 17th—18th centuries belonging to one cemetery were discovered on the site of the settlement. This, in turn, gives reason to assume the existence of a Christian church on the Vypovziv settlement, to which the discovered cemetery was attached.

Extended-range luminescence chronologies for the Middle Pleistocene units at the Sima del Elefante archaeological site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain)

The Sima del Elefante site is located within the Sierra de Atapuerca karst system (Burgos, northern Spain), and forms part of a series of important Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene archaeological complexes that have been dated previously with luminescence techniques (Gran Dolina, Galería Complex, Sima de los Huesos, Galería de las Estatuas). This study focuses on the upper Middle Pleistocene units (TE18 and TE19) at Sima del Elefante, which contain Acheulean and transitional lithic assemblages (Mode 2/3), as well as large and small mammal fossils. Importantly, these uppermost units are associated with a sediment plug located in the cave's interior at Galería Baja, which marks the closure of a significant palaeoentrance to the Atapuerca karst system. Establishing the accumulation history of these related deposits is important for understanding both Lower Palaeolithic technological dynamics via comparisons with similar levels at other Atapuerca sites (i.e., Gran Dolina and Galería Complex), as well as past human occupation patterns and carnivore use of (and accessibility to) the caves. We present single-grain TT-OSL and multi-grain pIR-IR chronologies for the Sima del Elefante upper sequence and the Galería Baja sediment cone, as well as U-series dating results for a stalagmitic crust capping the combined clastic infill sequence. The paired luminescence ages for the upper occupation levels are in agreement with each other and reveal that the host deposits accumulated 576–481 ka for the TE18 stratified scree layers, 266–237 ka for TE19 and 206–250 ka for the Galería Baja upper cone section (weighted mean 2σ age ranges). A concordant U-series age of 202 ± 65 ka is obtained for the overlying stalagmitic crust at Galería Baja. The Sima del Elefante ages are consistent with those previously obtained using U-series and biochronology, confirming that there is an erosional unconformity and complex carbonate deposition phase associated with the upper layers of unit TE18 and that the original cave entrance likely closed by ∼200 ka. Chronological correlation with other Atapuerca sites reveals potential equivalence between TE18 and unit TD8 (at Gran Dolina), and between TE19 and units GIIb–GIIIb (at Galería Complex) and, possibly, TD10.1 and TD10.2 (at Gran Dolina), though more refined dating is required to confirm the latter.

Cyclopean Fortresses, Royal Cities or Mountain Shelters?

Abstract The present article is devoted to a new study of two archaeological complexes, Abuli and Shaori in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region of Georgia, that are known in the research literature. The sites discussed in this article have been visited and studied multiple times during the first three years of activities in the region in the frame of the Georgian-Italian Samtskhe-Javakheti Project. They have been carefully examined from both architectural and environmental perspectives and new hypotheses about their function have been proposed. Due to their unique geographical position and architectural features, the protohistoric fortified shelters of Abuli and Shaori may be considered exceptional archaeological sites not only in the archaeological panorama of Georgia but in the entire South Caucasus region.

Models for iron age agriculture and pastoralism in Kazakhstan

During the first millennium BCE the Saka (eastern variants of the Scythians) have been characterized as early nomadic confederacies or states. Recently there has been considerable discussion about the role of agro pastoralism in Eurasian prehistory, especially during the Bronze and Iron Ages (ca. 2500 BCE to 400/500 CE).1-4 The term of agro pastoralism has become so widespread in archaeological literature as a catch-all term that the variations within and between dual economic systems of agriculture and mobile pastoralism have become obscured. In this brief essay I wish to discuss the ways in which agriculture articulated with pastoralism in ancient Iron Age cultures of Eurasia. While the assumption is that agro pastoralism represents a mutually symbiotic relationship between crop cultivation and grazing of herd animals, this may not always be the case. Furthermore, herders may belong not only to different occupational classes than farmers, but they often may represent different ethnic groups separate from farmers.5 An example of this, might be the Andronovo herdsmen of Ojakly, who lived apart from the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) urban dwellers of Gonur Depe during the Bronze Age in the second millennium BCE.6,7

Baltic Migrants in the Middle Dnipro Region: A Comparative Study of the Late Viking Age Archaeological Complex of Ostriv, Ukraine

THE LATE VIKING-AGE CEMETERY OF OSTRIV, located approximately 80 km south of Kyiv in the region along the Ros’ River, was discovered by the Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine team in 2017. By 2020, 67 inhumation graves had been excavated in an area of 1400 sq m. Most of the artefacts from Ostriv are uncommon in Ukraine, but frequently found in the East Baltic region. This suggests a complex multi-ethnic population, presumably consisting of Baltic region migrants and local Slavs, and represents the easternmost example of its kind. Ostriv is a vivid example of how research on complex, multi-ethnic ancient populations benefits from multidisciplinary international collaborations. This article provides the first synthesis of the archaeological artefacts and burial rites from Ostriv, informed by the results of 14C-dating, stable isotopes, aDNA, physical anthropology and nondestructive metal analyses. It represents an important contribution to the renewed interest in early medieval migration, ethnic complexity and cultural encounters.

NEW LOOK TO THE FIRST GLASSMAKING WORKSHOP DISCOVERED IN KYIV PODIL

In 1950 V. A. Bohusevich carried out the first stationary excavations in Kyiv Podil which unearthed the archaeological sites with remains of ironwork, glasswork and woodworking. One of them, an assemblage with the remains of glass processing was interpreted as a workshop where bracelets, rings and smalt were made. It was dated by a copper coin of Alexei Comnenus to the years of his reign — 1081—1118. However, despite such a craft complex was found in Podil for the first time, and despite the extreme lack of archaeological data on the only workshop, previously known in Kyiv thanks to the excavations of Vikentiy Khvoika in 1907-1908, publications were limited to brief mentions of it, leaving its complex of finds out of the context.
 The collection of finds from V. A. Bohusevich excavations as well as field documentation and the excavation report are stored in the Institute of Archaeology of the NAS of Ukraine which allows to refer to the source base. The paper provides the publication of this complex of finds at the first time, and interpretation of the material in the light of modern archaeological concepts. The attention, first of all, is directed to two main categories of finds, which are the glass and fragments of pottery, the most numerous in the collection. Both of these categories as well as the amphorae fragments highlight the analogies in later archaeological complexes than previously thought. Well-dated archaeological features show the similarities with materials from the 12th and 13th centuries. This allows us to refine the dating of this assemblage towards a later one.
 We cannot conclude confidently that the glass manufacture was located here because these conclusions require certain evidence, such as a glass-making furnace, raw materials, remnants of production, and rejected products. The remains of the real glass furnace have not been found in situ as well as most of the other components. However, given the presence of certain materials such as: bricks with riveted liquid glass, fragments of trading glass, bracelets of certain types and colors with the same size ratio, it may indicate that a certain glass-making complex may have been located nearby.

АРХЕОЛОГО-ПАЛИНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ КУЛЬТУРНОГО СЛОЯ ОХЛЕБИНИНСКОГО I ГОРОДИЩА

The work is dedicated to the publication of materials from one of the settlement objects of the Okhlebininsky archaeological complex, located in the Iglinsky district of the Republic of Bashkortostan and belonging to the Kara-Abyz archaeological culture of the early Iron Age. A brief outline of the current state of the study of archaeological sites in the survey area is given. The results of complex archaeological and palynological studies of the cultural strata of the Okhlebininsky I settlement are considered, and the settlement's citadel deposits are studied in detail. As a result of the analysis of the spore-pollen composition of the deposits of the cultural layer, four representative spore-pollen spectra, which describe the existence of forest-steppe and forest landscapes, were obtained. The stages of change of vegetation and climate during the functioning of the settlement are characterized. Materials obtained from the citadel of the settlement testify that the Ubalar population begins to develop the site of the monument at the turn of the eras. The materials from the neighboring cape allow us to suggest that this site was developed earlier than the site of the Okhlebininsky I settlement, as evidenced by ceramic material. The findings of a numerous elevating cape confined to the side of the ravine and the material obtained from the pit 6 actualize the continuation of the research in the adjacent territory.

Ислам в Томском Приобье от XIII к XVIII веку – от гипотез к реальности

Objective: The article deals with the question of the time of the spread of Islam in the Tomsk region of the Ob basin. It not only analyzes the early date of the penetration of Islam (the thirteenth century), but also the events related to the integration of Western Siberia into the Russian state. Moscow’s policies toward the aboriginal population was flexible and considered the complexity of the ethnic picture of the annexed lands. After a relatively short time, the population of the region was split into two worlds – Christian (Orthodox) and Islamic. Research materials: The archaeological complexes of this period demonstrate this process and, considering the scarcity of the written sources, allow us to clarify the time and place of the population’s initiation into new religions. However, it is necessary to take into account all the nuances, and all the materials available for analysis, in order not to create a false idea of historical processes, and to succumb to the desire to push the spread of Islam in this region to a more distant past. Determination of the confessional affiliation of the deceased cannot be limited to two features, and it is necessary to consider both the global canons of Islam and its Siberian regional peculiarities. My report is based on the materials of the excavations of the Tojanov Gorodok burial ground of the famous national archaeologist M.P. Gryaznov in 1924. Results and novelty of the research: Based on the analysis of the available materials the following conclusion is made: this site cannot be considered “one of the earliest Islamic sites in the Lower Tom basin”. It is a burial site of the pre-Muslim period. The circumstances related to the spread of Islam are as follows: although it is possible that Islam penetrated the region as early as the thirteenth century, the formation of Muslim communities occurred in the seventeenth century, after Western Siberia became part of the Russian state.

About Cremation Burials in the Middle Reaches of the Seversky Donets River

The article discusses the presence in the middle reaches of the Seversky Donets River the Khazar burials carried out by the rite of cremation, which are known upstream of the river, within the forest-steppe. Previously, the only such burial ground in this, steppe, territory was considered "burial ground 2" of the archaeological complex Mayaki. In recent years, the discovery of three more necropolises in the steppe zone has been announced. The mapping of the complexes of "burial ground no. 2" on the monument's plan Mayaki shows that they are a series of pits scattered far apart from each other, including within the residential part of the settlement. The pits contain no calcified bones, burnt objects or other items relevant to cremation burials. There is no reason to attribute these complexes to a single burial ground, nor is there any reason to classify them as "cremations". Other sites (Bondarikha, Gosudarev Yar, Tatyanovka) are archaeological sites completely destroyed by looters. Thus, on the basis of these materials, there is no reason to claim the presence of cremation necropolises in the middle course of the Seversky Donets River.

KALENYKY HILL-FORT AT THE DOWNSTREAM OF SUPIY RIVER

The paper is devoted to the results of exploratory archaeological research in 2015—2020 near the village of Kalenyky, Zolotonosha district, Cherkasy region. Kalenykivske hill-fort is one of the significant and poor studied fortified centers of Supiy basin. The history of its research is considered and the archaeological finds from the site are characterized in the paper. The state of preservation of the acropolis and the fortified outskirt is considered in detail. Deciphering the satellite images it was possible to identify and localize two lines of fortifications in the area, which was not possible before. The paper analyzes all artifacts known to date, which were discovered in previous years and introduced into scientific circulation. The provided archaeological materials and data indicate that in the Old Rus Age there was a significant fortified settlement in the southern part of the high Kalenyki-Tashan plateau,which had the status of the center of a microregion with urban features. The church bell of the 12th century made by French craftsmen and found next to the acropolis demonstrates the wide economic and cultural ties not only of the centers of principalities but also of remote fortified settlements. Nine body crosses, mostly from the 12th century, found nearby, allows us to suppose the presence of a church and a Christian population. Fortification features and the available materials of the Kalenyki hillfort make it possible to reliably connect this archaeological complex with the powerful center of the semi-nomadic federations of the Pereyaslav princes («our pagans»). According to the area, the Kalenyki hill-fort (23.1 ha) belongs to one of the significant sites not only of the Pereyaslav region but also of Southern Russia. It can claim the status of one of the Supiy centers.

An exploration of the ceramic technology of a northern Chilean community, evidence from the Caleta Vitor Archaeological Complex

This paper discusses the results of statistical analyses of the domestic ceramic assemblage from the Caleta Vitor Archaeological Complex, northern Chile, a collection that spans 2500 years. Mineralogical analyses were also conducted on a selection of the ceramic sherds using X-ray diffraction (XRD) as well as paste and petrographic analyses. The results of this study correspond with prior research (Bland et al., 2017a) which concluded that the majority of domestic ceramics from the Caleta Vitor Archaeological Complex were manufactured using local resources. Here, we expand this discussion by identifying four ceramic paste groups that would constitute local pottery traditions of manufacture. The identified paste groups are relatively consistent and span almost all time periods examined (Formative c. 4000–1500 BP through to Hispanic c. 467 BP Periods). These results support the argument that these ceramic traditions were maintained by the coastal communities of Caleta Vitor, despite the fact that they were integrated into interregional networks of interactions through time, including their relationships with powerful Andean polities. These apparent continuities in domestic ceramic production allow us to reflect on local decision-making processes throughout relevant cultural phases, and to conclude that foreign pottery did not have an exchange value.

Нестандартные погребения ранней бронзы Есауловского Аксая. Некоторые вопросы культурогенеза

The article dwells upon publication and analysis of materials from two unusual Early Bronze Age burials, dating back to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, investigated by the Volgograd State University expedition in the southern part of the Volga-Don interfluve. The published archaeological complexes were discovered in the kurgan cemeteries located on the bank terraces of the steppe river called Yesaulovsky Aksay. A number of distinctive features made it possible to attribute these complexes to the late period of the Lower Volga Yamnaya culture. These kurgan burials stand out on the overall background of the Yamna culture burials due to the grave structure features, details of the burial rite and positions of the buried individuals. The bodies positions in the investigated burials are unusual. In one case, the dead body was arranged into a sitting position with the head turned towards the south. In another one, the dead body was segmented and then put into the typical crouched position on the side with the head turned towards the east. Both rites had come from another culture associated with the North Caucasus region which had a significant impact on the economy, social and ideological structure, burial practices of the population of the Lower Volga region and the adjacent territories of Russias southern steppes throughout the Early and Middle Bronze Ages.

Issyk necropolis and adjacent mountain complexes of early nomads of Southeastern Zhetysu

The article presents the results related to the preservation and use of archaeological monuments of the Issyk necropolis and adjacent sites with supplemented and updated data of objects of the early nomad era located south of the Esik-Talgar highway, as a rule, in the chain of the Rakhat-Orikty part of the Esik-Rakhat archaeological complex. In general, we can talk about the Esik-Rakhat archaeological complex, which, in addition to the protected area of the reserve-museum, includes new types of funerary and memorial monuments of the foothill zone of Zhetysu.The research touches upon issues related to the periodization of the Zhetysu region in the classical Saka period (V–IV centuries BC), social stratification, ideological representations and the main economy of the Saka tribes in the early Iron Age, which greatly contributes to the study of the spiritual and material culture of the ancient population of this region. At the same time, the authors note that in the historiographical aspect, analyzing the opinions of scientific researchers concerning the issues of periodization of the Saka time, Zhetysu is one of the most urgent tasks today. In methodological terms, the study used methods of cartography, planography and stratigraphic observations, as well as elements and methods of typological and statistical analysis. According to the structure and features of the structure, the monuments were divided into two types, into four groups according to the topographic location of the burial grounds. Key words: Zhetysu, Esik-Rakhat archaeological complex, Issyk necropolis, foothill zone, Saka culture, burial mounds.

Technological aspects of artifact’s ornamentation in the Mal’ta’s collection (Upper Paleolithic)

Mal’ta is one of the most important archeological complexes of the Siberian Upper Paleolithic. The appearance of items with serial-rhythmic decorative elements in the Siberian portable art it is associated with the classical stage of the Upper Paleolithic. Important issues in the study of the Malta complex include stratigraphy, chronology, technological characteristics of the site, and the problem of diversity of the ensemble of the “classical” component obtained during the excavations of M.M. Gerasimov in 1928–1958. In the article we discuss the issues of decorating items made from mammoth tusk using various techniques and technologies with external stability of the elements (motifs) of the ornament. The microscopic analysis of the Mal’ta collection revealed usage of several techniques for manufacturing of different decorative items. These include portable anthropomorphic and zoomorphic images, items of personal adornment, and other artifacts. We categorized artifacts based on the fragments of the artifacts, blanks, and finished products with and without decoration. It has been established that in the classical Mal’ta complex, there were various technological methods for decoration anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures, personal adornments, disks and other objects using a stable set of tools and technological standards. Basing on results of technological and microscopic analysis we argue that chronological or cultural differences likely existed in artifact’s style, ornamentation and manufacturing techniques.

Керамика XVIII в. из материалов археологических разведок на Царицынской сторожевой линии

The research subject is the 18th century ceramics discovered in the course of the reconnaissance excavation at the Tsaritsyn guard line, the 18th century fortification monument, conducted in 2020. The object of study is the “Rampart of the Tsaritsyn guard line (Rampart of Anna Ioannovna)” which is a military engineering complex created in the Volga-Don interfluves in 1718–1720. Archaeological work with research purposes was carried out there at first time. Archaeological explorations led to the discovery of pottery fragments dating back to this period in a new location of the Tsaritsyn guard line. The research purpose is to present and characterize newly discovered 18th century ceramic materials found at the territory of the Tsaritsyn guard line. The research methods include description, typological analysis, statistical characteristic and comparison with the material found at the well-known 18th century archaeological complexes of so-called Cossack towns along the Don River. Identification of a new 18th century location of artefacts, statistical processing, archaeological drawings of found pottery fragments, graphic reconstructions of pottery forms are practical outcomes of the study. The main conclusion of the study is that the discovered ceramic complex in the new location of the Tsaritsyn guard line is similar in type, manufacturing technique, ornamentation and statistical ratio to materials from Cossack towns on the territory of the Volgograd region (Ilovlinsky, Kachalinsky, Starogrigorievsky) which are dated by coins of the first third of the 18th century. The new archeological materials are interpreted in the known data context and supplement the currently quite limited statistical framework of archaeological finds from the Volga-Don region of the early 18th century. The found pottery types can be used to further develop a typology of this period ceramics.

Чемурчекские антропоморфы

The article studies peculiar anthropomorphic rock images of the Mongolian Altai, representing some persons in shoulder clothes. The co-authors analyzed the results of their own field studies and published materials from the excavated complexes of the Mongolian Altai, Tibetan petroglyphs and stone sculptures of Xinjiang. They offer an experience of typological research of the “Chemurchek type” anthropomorphic figures, a chronology and semantics of these images, and present their hypothesis about the prototypes of “Chemurchek anthropomorphs” in the cult sculpture of the Bactria–Margiana archaeological complex.

ON THE ISSUE OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF THE EASTERN FORTIFICATION OF BILSK HILLFORT

Bilsk is the largest fortified settlement of the Early Iron Age in Europe. The defensive line of the site consists of a rampart and the moat of more than 30 km length surrounding the area of ca. 5 thousand hectares. Over the years of the exploration of this archaeological site the idea of the time of settlement of certain parts of the archaeological complex, the origin and peculiarities of the creation of grand defensive structures was gradually formed. A special role in the process of their formation and use was played by the Eastern fortification, the fortified walls of which existed for more than two centuries. Recent exploration of its rampart and moat taking into account the results obtained last years suggest the creation of strong defencive system on the place of unfortified settlements and offered new vision of the appearance of fortified walls.
 The analysis of excavation materials of different years allows us to state that the territories occupied by unfortified settlements in the pre-fortress period were much larger and went beyond the future line of wood-earth fortifications. For more than a century and a half in the western part of the settlement complex there were no defencive structures. Only open settlements are known, which appeared in the last third of the 8th century BC. The situation changed in the second half of 6th century BC when the eastern part of the complex was occupied by the population with other traditions. Probably at the beginning of the third quarter of the 6th century BC the founders of the settlement, located in the eastern part of the watershed plateau, surrounded the most important part of the village with a wooden fence (a wall of logs, or mud). A similar wall defended the settlements within the modern Western settlement. The defensive line of the Great Fortress was later planned according to the same principle. We believe that such a light fence, without additional engineering structures, had no defensive significance but determined its own social space of settlements, which housed the estates of local tribal leaders, the most important public buildings and other facilities. Probably belonging to the different tribal groups prompted the inhabitants of the two settlements to strengthen the system of defence and surround the perimeter of each of them with an earthen rampart. The settlements gradually turned into a kind of residence of the local elite. We can assume that in the last third of the 5th century BC or at the beginning of the last quarter of this century, most likely, in the unstable situation in the region, the single strong defensive line in the form of an earthen rampart with a wooden wall on the ridge and a moat in front of them was created. The rampart and moat of the Great Fortress probably delineated the boundaries of the centre of the tribal union. The representatives of different ethnic groups and different social groups lived in this large area. The created defensive line with a length of 35 km was relevant until the middle of the 5th century BC until the time of the appearance of the settlement within the Western settlement. In the Eastern settlement life continues for another century and a half, until the endof the 4th century BC.