Archaeological Artefacts Research Articles

Development of Storage and Assessment methods suited for organic Archaeological artefacts (StAr) - JPI-CH project

Abstract StAr project - Development of Storage and assessment methods suited for organic archaeological artefacts – started in 2020 within the framework of Joint Programming Initiative on Cultural Heritage and Global Change (JPI-CH) Conservation, Protection and Use. The project arises from the need for chemical-physical stabilization strategies of archaeological finds (mainly wood and leather), for long time (up to several months) in the waterlogged state, i.e., under pre-treatment conditions, without compromising the archaeological and scientific evidences they contain. Several methods of controlling storage conditions will be tested on archaeological wooden and leather objects. The experimentations will entail a systematic chemical analysis and monitoring of the organic materials before, during and after storage in different conditions, both in laboratory and on-field at the Biskupin archaeological excavation site in Poland.

SETIF NATIONAL ARCHEOLOGY MUSEUM, ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY

The museum is the place through which the visitor can roam through time through various civilizations. It is a permanent headquarters for the service and development of society. It is open to the public. It collects, preserves and stores archaeological artifacts and then displays them to the visiting public, for the purpose of study, education, and entertainment. It is also an institution focused on Its role is to contribute to the development of societies scientifically, culturally, ethically and other functions, as the Setif Museum has a huge collection of holdings, and accordingly this research paper came to introduce the National Museum of Antiquities in Setif, whose visit is a journey through time in which the visitor summarizes the history and culture of the city through its corridors, as well as showing the most important holdings that are available on it and the most important museum display methods that it uses in presenting its museum holdings?. Key words: Setif National Archeology Museum, Museum Holdings.

“For Sale by All Druggists”: Patent Medicine and National Market Access in Springfield, Illinois

Abstract Examination of newspaper ads and store records of available products combined with data generated from the archaeological record provide insight into how individuals and communities kept pace with national and global trends in medicine and advertising. Decades of archaeological investigation in Springfield, Illinois, by Fever River Research have yielded a rich data set that provides diverse insights into the community. The goal of this case study is to apply a commodity access model to the Springfield, Illinois, data to examine the accuracy of modern researchers’ ideas about the impact of market access on consumer choice. The combination of archaeological artifacts and archival data forms a compelling picture of a community that took advantage of unprecedented access to medicine and commodities during the rise of America's Gilded Age. In contrast to the original results of the commodity model, the results of this analysis indicate that the expansion of trade networks and interaction spheres may not have been the critical factor in consumer choice. Instead, social structures on a local level—between neighborhoods, competing stores, and the consumer—become more important in areas with diverse product access.

Comparative Hydrodynamic Study on Non-Aqueous Soluble Archaeological Wood Consolidants: Butvar B-98 and PDMS-OH Siloxanes.

Butvar B-98 and PDMS-OH both have a demonstrable ability as consolidants for archaeological wood. This makes them both potential treatment options for the Oseberg collection, which is one of the most important archaeological finds from the Viking era. Both Butvar B-98 and PDMS-OH are soluble in organic solvents, offering a useful alternative to aqueous-based consolidants. Extensive characterisation studies were carried out on both of these polymers, with the use of analytical ultracentrifugation and viscometry, for the benefit of conservators wanting to know more about the physical properties of these materials. Short column sedimentation equilibrium analysis using SEDFIT-MSTAR revealed a weight-average molar mass (weight-average molecular weight) Mw of (54.0 ± 1.5) kDa (kg · mol−1) for Butvar B-98, while four samples of PDMS-OH siloxanes (each with a different molar mass) had an Mw of (52.5 ± 3.0) kDa, (38.8 ± 1.5) kDa, (6.2 ± 0.7) kDa and (1.6 ± 0.1) kDa. Sedimentation velocity confirmed that all polymers were heterogeneous, with a wide range of molar masses. All molecular species showed considerable conformational asymmetry from measurements of intrinsic viscosity, which would facilitate networking interactions as consolidants. It is anticipated that the accumulated data on these two consolidants will enable conservators to make a more informed decision when it comes to choosing which treatment to administer to archaeological artefacts.

Geological origin of the archaeological obsidian artifacts from the Holocene sequences of Mochena Borago and Yabello, southern Ethiopia

Obsidian archaeological artifacts from the Holocene occupation sequences at the contemporary sites of Mochena Borago and Yabello, southern Ethiopia, have been characterized using electron microprobe analysis. Results show the artifacts of each site were partially procured from two separate but known sources, Bantu and Chebe. The inhabitants of both sites also seem to have used obsidian from another, as yet unknown, source. This is interesting as the inhabitants of each site pursued different life ways: one entirely dependent on wild animals and the other incorporating domestic fauna. In spite of the analysis of many geological sources in the Ethiopian Rift System, the unknown sources cannot yet be determined. Despite erupting from several vents, one of the sources, Chebe, has uniform elemental chemistry, representing an exception to the widely held assumption that every eruptive sequence has unique chemistry, the archaeological significance of which should be further explored.

Investigating the Plant Microremains on Ceramic Li Tripods to Ascertain Their Function and the Plant Resource Exploitation Strategies During the Lower Xiajiadian Culture Period in Chifeng, Northeast China

In undertaking a functional study of ceramic Li tripods, a common archaeological artifact in Northeast China during the Bronze Age, this study provides a crucial insight into both the function of these ceramics, plant resource strategies and human diets during this period. The precise function of the Li tripod has to date been controversial due to a lack of direct contextual evidence. Hence, this paper presents analyses of 10 Li tripods from six sites in the Chifeng area of Northeast China, all of which can be dated from their excavation contexts to the Lower Xiajiadian cultural period (3,900–3,400 cal a B.P.). The interior and exterior surfaces of the tripods were analyzed using starch grain analysis, phytolith analysis and microfossil charcoal analysis. A total of 133 starch grains were recovered, of which 111 (83.46%) were found on 80% of the interior surfaces examined. Further analysis found that these starch grains had damage features specifically gelatinised characteristics, which were consistent with the starch grains that had been boiled in our cooking simulations. In addition, there were obvious soot traces on the surfaces of the tripods, 2,835 microfossil charcoal grains not completely burned were identified, and 70% of the exterior surface samples had a higher frequency of contact with fire. These findings serve to confirm that Li tripods were used in the cooking of food. Of the 133 starch grains found, only 62 could be identified to species level. These were foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum milliaceum) and plants from Triticeae taxa, as well as roots and tubers. The 3,424 phytoliths recovered from the 10 tripods were found to belong to the Panicoideae and Pooideae genera, of which the husks from foxtail and broomcorn millets from the Panicoideae genus accounted for 6.19% of the total. These results indicate that millets, the Triticeae, roots, and tubers, in addition to plants from Panicoideae and Pooideae genera, were utilized in the Chifeng area of Northeast China during the Bronze Age. This study deepens our understanding of the local subsistence patterns and the social context of early Bronze age civilization in the region.

The Deserted Manor of Noer, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Geophysical Prospection Methods in Comparison

Manors are an important component of the cultural-economic history of Northern Germany and Southern Scandinavia. We present the results of a geophysical prospection that led to the identification of a previously unknown manor near the village of Noer, Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany. Although magnetic gradiometry provides a fast way to cover large areas, it does not provide accurate depth estimates, is affected by magnetic blanking and is unable to detect differences in water content. Therefore, we applied a combination of different geophysical methods to optimize the non-invasive reconstruction of the target and its surroundings not only with respect to building structures but also in relation to the surrounding landscape. In particular, a combination of magnetics, ground-penetrating radar (GPR), electromagnetic induction (EMI), electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), and soil samples were carried out to determine: (1) the object's exact location; (2) the building structure and state of preservation; and (3) any additional structures in the surrounding area. We detected a tripartite building of 22 by 27 m, with several inner walls, which was located underneath a topographic high on the surveyed field. The bulk structure is identifiable most clearly in the magnetic and EMI inphase component maps. GPR profiles and soil samples indicate flooring or foundations in part of the building. Their shallow depths of less than 2 m below the surface and debris clusters close to the surface indicate at least partial demolition. A surrounding wall was found about 5 m outside the building. The area in between shows no magnetic anomalies, lower resistivities in EMI and ERT, and low GPR reflection amplitudes. Soil samples suggest a moat or other water feature. Archaeological artifacts found at the location characterize the building as a 16th to 17th century brick manor. Other objects, like a suspected farmyard and access path could not be found. A comparison with historical sources suggest that the mansion is in relation to the manor Grönwohld. After a change of the owner it was degraded to a Meierhof, and subsequently the building decayed and was forgotten.

Advances in Understanding Microbial Deterioration of Buried and Waterlogged Archaeological Woods: A Review

This review provides information on the advances made leading to an understanding of the micromorphological patterns produced during microbial degradation of lignified cell walls of buried and waterlogged archaeological woods. This knowledge not only serves as an important diagnostic signature for identifying the type(s) of microbial attacks present in such woods but also aids in the development of targeted methods for more effective preservation/restoration of wooden objects of historical and cultural importance. In this review, an outline of the chemical and ultrastructural characteristics of wood cell walls is first presented, which serves as a base for understanding the relationship of these characteristics to microbial degradation of lignocellulosic cell walls. The micromorphological patterns of the three different types of microbial attacks—soft rot, bacterial tunnelling and bacterial erosion—reported to be present in waterlogged woods are described. Then, the relevance of understanding microbial decay patterns to the preservation of waterlogged archaeological wooden artifacts is discussed, with a final section proposing research areas for future exploration.

From OXALID to GlobaLID: Introducing a modern and FAIR lead isotope database with an interactive application

AbstractLead isotope provenance studies of archaeological artefacts rely crucially on the availability of reference data from raw material sources. The OXALID database, a collection of Excel sheets with Pb isotope data of ores and artefacts, is still the most cited data source in archaeometry. However, OXALID has not been updated for several years and contains almost exclusively data from Europe, particularly from the Mediterranean area. Digitalisation and open science philosophy currently revolutionise the use of machine‐generated data by developing digital data infrastructures. A modernised Pb isotope reference database, which is tailored for, but not limited to archaeometric research, is hence overdue. Here, we introduce GlobaLID, a FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) and extendable database and a web application with interactive and statistical tools for user‐friendly data handling up to publication quality. GlobaLID aims to be a collection point for worldwide Pb isotope data. It is designed as research infrastructure for Pb isotope studies in (for example) archaeometry, ore deposit and environmental geochemistry. As a community engagement project, GlobaLID invites scientists around the world to become active contributors to enable GlobaLID’s rapid growth. We released GlobaLID as a pilot study to showcase the infrastructure we build and provide a starting point for community discussion.

A first regional model of the past Earth's magnetic field from Africa for the last 4000 years

The understanding of the Earth's magnetic field variations over time on the African continent is fundamental for several reasons. For instance, the most important feature of the present geomagnetic field, the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) characterized by weaker geomagnetic strength values than those expected for their latitudes, may have emerged in South Africa at the beginning of the second millennium CE. Here, we first selected the available volcanic and archaeomagnetic data following a set of three criteria inspired by the FAIR principles. We then built a first regional geomagnetic model for Africa covering the last 4000 years, using a revised version of the spherical cap harmonic (SCH) analysis in 2 dimensions. The new regional model shows, at the Earth's surface, the westward migration of the SAA from the Indian Ocean over Africa since 1100 CE. In addition, the regional model is tested as a paleomagnetic dating tool by re-dating previous archaeomagnetic data from Africa and thus can be used to date other African archeological sites and the numerous active and dormant volcanoes of the East African System. Plain language summaryThe spatial and temporal evolution of the Earth's magnetic (geomagnetic) field is based on direct historical or instrumental data and the indirect information extracted from rocks and archeological artifacts (palaeo- and archaeomagnetic data). While the present field is well sampled at both spatial and temporal domains, this is not the case for the past evolution of the geomagnetic field, where the paleomagnetic data are not globally distributed. There are large areas in the Southern Hemisphere yet to be investigated. However, recent data from Africa enables us the building of the first regional geomagnetic model for the last 4000 years. The new regional model sheds light on the past evolution of the most remarkable feature of the present geomagnetic field, the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA), showing details of the westward migration of the SAA from the Indian Ocean over Africa since 1100 CE. Moreover, the new model refines the use of paleomagnetism as a dating tool for volcanic units from East African Rift System and for the abundant African archeological sites improving the knowledge of the history of human civilizations.

Artifacsimile –3D printed preservation at Monticello

Monticello, Thomas Jefferson’s plantation in Virginia, experimented with displaying archaeological artifacts in a permanent outdoor exhibition on enslaved men, women, and children. Unfortunately, the artifacts began to deteriorate from exposure to environmental changes. How could cultural heritage artifacts be preserved, while still contributing to the exhibition? Curators and archaeologists collaborated with the University of Virginia Library to collect 3D data and produce facsimiles for display in outdoor exhibitions. By producing a printed object based on precision 3D data, an “artifacsimile” becomes a physical representation of the original with the resulting 3D data processed, archived, and accessible to scholars and educators. Artifacsimiles at Monticello are a case study for the benefits and efficacy of 3D technologies for preservation and exhibit, in support of the University of Virginia’s efforts to collect, process, archive and disseminate 3D data using methods of 3D Cultural Heritage Informatics.

Geochemical signatures of soapstones from the Nuuk area, southern West Greenland – their use for fingerprinting of archaeological artefacts

Soapstone was mined and traded by the Palaeo- and Neo-Eskimo cultures (Saqqaq, Dorset, and Thule) as well as the Norse and Moravian cultures living in Greenland through time. We collected soapstone from outcrops around Nuuk, which hold large quantities of Greenland's high-quality soapstone, and analysed their whole-rock geochemistry, Sm–Nd and Rb–Sr isotopes for fingerprinting geological and archaeological purposes. Fieldwork showed that the quality of soapstone in the Nuuk area varies widely; however, a correlation exists with the age and metamorphic history of the rocks. Soapstone in the Nuuk area is derived from Archaean ultramafic rocks and yield high Mg, Cr, Ni and low Fe, V, K concentrations and are depleted in Ca. Soapstones from Nuuk have very high Rb concentrations and average to low Sr concentrations compared to other Archaean ultramafic rocks, leading to very high and irregular 87Rb/86Sr and 87Sr/86Sr ratios. A very poorly constrained Rb–Sr errorchron for unmetasomatised samples from the Nuuk area has a slope corresponding to an age of 3.05 ± 0.33 Ga. Soapstone samples from Nuuk, both affected and unaffected by metasomatism give a147Sm/144Nd isochron age of 2.95 ± 0.06 Ga. This is regarded as the age of metsomatism, and tectono-metamorphic overprinting, which affected the precursors to the soapstone. The best quality soapstones occur in the areas dominated by Eoarchaean gneisses. The ca. 2.95 Ga overprinting is uncommonly old for soapstones worldwide. Soapstone, and hence archaeological artefacts created from this soapstone, may likely be fingerprinted to the Nuuk area.

Optimizing the thermal treatment for restoration of brittle archaeological silver artifacts

Archaeological silver artifacts are often found to be brittle because of long-term corrosion. However, the restoration of brittle archaeological silver artifacts by thermal treatment has never been quantitatively and systematically studied due to the lack of sufficient experimental samples. Herein, the simulated Ag–Cu alloy flake samples with intergranular corrosion consistent with those brittle archaeological silver artifacts were prepared through two-step annealing and accelerated aging in Fe(NO3)3 + AgNO3 solution. The changes in the microstructure and mechanical strength (σbb, Eb, and HV) of the brittle samples after thermal treatments were studied with the help of SEM–EDS, metallographic observation, three-point bending tests, and microhardness tests. In addition, the most suitable conditions for the restoration of the brittle samples were summarized by the temperature–time (T-t) map obtained from a series of comprehensive thermal treatments. Moreover, the differences in microstructures and mechanical strength between the brittle samples annealed in an aerobic/anaerobic environment were revealed. This work provides an important reference for the restoration and conservation of brittle archaeological silver artifacts.

Finding Mesolithic Sites: A Multichannel Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) Investigation at the Ancient Lake Duvensee

The shift to the early Holocene in northern Europe is strongly associated with major environmental and climatic changes that influenced hunter-gatherers’ activities and occupation during the Mesolithic period. The ancient lake Duvensee (10,000–6500 cal. BCE) has been studied for almost a century, providing archaeological sites consisting of bark mats and hazelnut-roasting hearths situated on small sand banks deposited by the glacier. No method is yet available to locate these features before excavation. Therefore, a key method for understanding the living conditions of hunter-gatherer groups is to reconstruct the paleoenvironment with a focus on the identification of areas that could possibly host Mesolithic camps and well-preserved archaeological artefacts. We performed a 16-channel MALÅ Imaging Radar Array (MIRA) system survey aimed at understanding the landscape surrounding the find spot Duvensee WP10, located in a hitherto uninvestigated part of the bog. Using an integrated approach of high-resolution ground radar mapping and targeted excavations enabled us to derive a 3D spatio-temporal landscape reconstruction of the investigated sector, including paleo-bathymetry, stratigraphy, and shorelines around the Mesolithic camps. Additionally, we detected previously unknown islands as potential areas for yet unknown dwelling sites. We found that the growth rates of the islands were in the order of approximately 0.3 m2/yr to 0.7 m2/yr between the late Preboreal and the Subboreal stages. The ground-penetrating radar surveying performed excellently in all aspects of near-surface landscape reconstruction as well as in identifying potential dwellings; however, the direct identification of small-scale artefacts, such as fireplaces, was not successful because of their similarity to natural structures.

Upper Pleistocene remains of Bison priscus Bojanus, 1827 from Biśnik Cave (Middle Palaeolithic) and their significance for stratigraphy and palaeoecology

Remains of the steppe bison Bison priscus Bojanus, 1827 from the Upper Pleistocene layers of Biśnik Cave were morphometrically analysed and compared to those from other localities in Eurasia. The remains occurred in accumulations with archaeological artefacts. They bore traces of gnawing by carnivores. Morphometric analyses of the skull and post-cranial skeleton point to the small form of bison. The skull belonged to a small male while the bones of post-cranial skeleton indicate the occurrence of both males and females. Here we present all available and newly obtained calibrated 14C dates of the bison remains from this site, supplemented with new data for five specimens from Biśnik Cave, thus confirming the presence of the species during MIS 3 in Poland. The results are relevant to tracing the migration paths of the bison in the Upper Pleistocene during MIS 4-3.

Characterisation of the physico-chemical and optical properties of Australian native plant exudates for a simple method to determine archaeological resins and gums

Plant exudates, specifically resins and gums, have been used for millennia for a variety of purposes. This research characterises Australian plant exudates to allow simple procedures to be used for the characterisation and determination of plant exudates in residues from archaeological and anthropological artefacts. Various physico-chemical and optical properties of exudates were investigated including colour, density, solubility, melting point, UV luminescence, isotropy and pleochroism. This research showed that solubility and UV luminescence provided a very useful combination in determining the plant source of various exudates. It was also determined that solubility in a specific sequence of solvents also provided an extremely simple and efficient diagnostic key to screen residues that may contain a plant exudate. To validate the procedure, a set of artefacts were examined using this screening method that were previously identified using FTIR and GC-MS. This testing can be non-destructive and can be performed as micro-chemical techniques under a microscope or using simple portable equipment, that can easily be used by archaeologists in the field.

THE ON-SITE VOLCANIC CAVE CONSERVATION MUSEUM AT THE DAK NONG UNESCOGLOBAL GEOPARK

The Krong No volcanic caves at the Dak Nong UNESCO Global Geopark (Dak Nong UGGp) were discovered in 2007. Between 2017 and the present, they were comprehensively studied and evaluated for heritage value from the perspectives of geology, biology and cultural studies. These primitive, endogenic caves are characterized by rich and diverse interior formations, representing seven types of geological heritage as classified by the UNESCO and its GILGES classification system. The applicable types are A (Paleontology), B (Geomorphology), C (Paleo-Environment), D (Rock), E (Stratigraphy), F (Minerals), and I (Tectonics). The cave system’s wildlife is highly diverse and includes a number of newly discovered species endemic to Krong No. Thanks to research and excavation work, many types of archaeological artifacts have been discovered in the Krong No volcanic caves, including relics of residence, a tool-making site, burial artifacts, a makeshift hunting camp, and some artifacts possibly expressive of religious ritual. All of these are unique, valuable and rare. The various types of heritage discovered in the Krong No volcanic caves constitute the premise of an on-site conservation museum, established to promote heritage of value, teaching and scholarship, as well as community education and recreation. This article introduces a new direction for further research, related to the development of an on-site conservation museum of the volcanic cave heritage in the context of sustainable socio-economic development.

Episodic habitation and abandonment of Neolithic civilization sites in the Vaigai River Basin, Southern India

Recent studies have unearthed and recovered multiple sites with evidences of past human habitations in terms of ceramic, metal, precious stone, jewel, and stone tool industries and places of varied methods of burial and worship are being unearthed at different stratigraphic levels from floodplains of the Vaigai River Basin, Southern India. In this contribution, we present high-resolution 14C chronology of the archaeological artefacts, cultural evidence and the textural characteristics of sediments collected from the excavated pits. These data along with the information on regional geology, geomorphology, sedimentary facies, texture, petrography, and mineralogy constrain the older phase of the Vaigai River Basin Civilization to be microlithic in age, followed by affirmative evidence of ca. 5511-5147 BCE (7455-7091 cal yr BP). This was followed by few more colonization/cultural/habitation sites/surfaces at ca. 2976-2961 BCE (4938-4908 cal yr BP), 1860-1489 BCE (3543-3503 cal yr BP),530-390 BCE (2435-2314 cal yr BP), 596-629 CE (1353-1321 cal yr BP) and post 1225-1312 CE (729-619 cal yr BP). These are designated as habitation sites/surfaces namely HS-1, HS-2, HS-3, HS-4, HS-5 and HS-6, respectively. Evidences of urbanism, industrial and leisure activities besides cohabitation of at least three groups that practiced mutually exclusive burial customs are documented. Microlithic tools and buried habitation stages, together with the prevalence of modern habitations, make this basin unique with human occupation at least since the mid-Holocene. Major shifts of the trunk channel of the Vaigai River, perhaps associated with flood events, marooned/buried/destroyed the ancient habitation sites that forced the inhabitants to abandon old sites and led to the reestablishment of newer ones. Inevitable dependence of the ancient societies on the riverbanks and the flood plains for settlements and livelihood compounded with the lack of knowledge on extreme climatic events possibly caused the decimation of several settlements of this important civilization from south India.

Physico-chemical characterisation of remains from a Bronze Age ochre-burial in Biniadris cave (Menorca, Spain)

Red ochre pigments have been used since ancient times by many different civilisations on different continents. In the paper presented herein, ten manufactured artefacts and biological materials stained with a red pigment found in the Bronze Age burial site of Biniadris Cave (Menorca, Spain) have been characterised throught X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, Raman and infrared spectroscopy techniques, scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The surface analysis of the bones, hairs and ornaments allowed the chemical composition of the pigment used in the funeral practices and rituals to be unequivocally established as hematite-rich ochre. The finding of a gypsum preparation layer on a sample, below the ochre layer, suggests that it could have been used as a primer before sprinkling with hematite ochre. Given the excellent degree of conservation and the worth of this archaeological record for the study of the symbolic practices in the island of Menorca, these results call for further analyses on a larger set of archaeological artefacts to gain insight into the funeral practices conducted in this cave.

Approaches to interrogate the erased histories of recycled archaeological objects

AbstractAny archaeological artefact made from recyclable material may have been recycled before deposition. Three approaches are presented which have identified recycling in the archaeological record: (1) the application of log ratio analyses to investigate compositional data indicates that Roman glass was recycled and reapplied as a glaze on Parthian pottery, thereby suggesting that the paucity of Parthian and Sasanian glass in the archaeological record is due to recycling; (2) linear mixing lines on plots that combine compositional and isotopic data suggest that most silver found in the Iron Age hoards of the southern Levant was mixed, with vertical mixing lines indicating that some of it was melted down hastily in times of unrest; and (3) histograms of compositional data provide evidence of recycling accompanied by dilution of cobalt‐blue glass in New Kingdom Egypt, potentially because the colourant was not available in later periods, thereby questioning the accepted provenance of the cobalt source. It is considered that application of these approaches can contribute to a better understanding of the motivations behind recycling in prehistory.