Archaeological Archives Research Articles

Excavating the Archive / Archiving the Excavation: Archival Processes and Contexts in Archaeology

ABSTRACTThis article focuses on the production of archaeological knowledge within the fieldwork archive. Archaeological archives do not always reflect the reality of evidence uncovered during fieldwork processes or even the fieldwork processes themselves. This includes the many different agents and agencies, which are crucial to the construction of archaeological knowledge and their representation—or lack of representation—in the archive. Archaeological archives impose restrictions on how knowledge is included in a collection, the way it is recorded, and the fieldwork processes used. Therefore, this article considers the way in which the processes of archival documentation produce, transform, and construct archaeological knowledge. The main examples are from the British School of Archaeology in Egypt's excavations at Abydos between 1921 and 1922, often referred to as the Tombs of the Courtiers and directed by Flinders Petrie. Looking at the different contexts of an excavation archive, from before its creation to its ongoing curation and use, can reveal significant aspects not just of the history of archaeology but also on many of the ongoing recording methods and processes still used in the field today.

Future use or no future at all? An examination of post-excavation historical archaeological repositories in NSW

In NSW the availability of excavation records, physical remains (primarily artefacts), technical datasets, and reports associated with a historical archaeological project can only be described as varied. These forms of data can be collectively termed an archaeological archive. The storage of archives commonly includes any combination of small-scale centralised repositories, on-site facilities, private (client or investigator) off-site storage, or digital platforms. Archaeologists recognise the value of sustainably archiving these resources, as well as making them available for research, public access, or other intentions, however, what is the status of our combined approaches? Data collected from 40 historical archaeological sites in NSW has been used here to benchmark the current situation in the state. It was found that only three of the investigated sites had a complete and accessible archaeological archive with suitable metadata available before reaching the storage facility. This research outlines the precarious status of our efforts in archiving for perpetuity and the reliance on informal and personal networks within the archaeological community to discover and access archives. It is argued here that a framework of visibility, accessibility, and longevity should be applied to any project to consider the strength of archaeological archive retention methods. While the focus remains on understanding the key issues, several recommendations are also made for improving the consistency and long-term success of accessing historical archaeological repositories and data management systems. Key suggested approaches are to promote significance in the decision to create archaeological archives in the first place, prioritise resolving visibility constraints and focus on small and achievable system improvements.

Response of the Akrotiri Marsh, island of Cyprus, to Bronze Age climate change

Here we present two multiproxy records covering the last 5000 years from the Akrotiri Marsh in southern Cyprus. Pollen and diatom analysis of radiocarbon dated marsh sediments with an average chronological resolution of one date every thousand years, reveal expansion and contraction of the marsh in response to mid-late Holocene climate events, with peak aridity reconstructed in the early Bronze Age, inferred between 4.3 and 4.1 cal ka BP, and repeated dry intervals in the Late Bronze Age, inferred between 3.4 and 3.1 cal ka BP. The record provides important contextual climate data to the debate surrounding reported Early and Late Bronze Age societal collapse events present in numerous archaeological archives throughout the Mediterranean and Near Eastern region. This is the first multiproxy record from the island of Cyprus potentially displaying the 4.2 ka BP event. The characteristics of the inferred 3.2 ka BP event are very similar to the manifestation of the event in the east of Cyprus and on the southern Levantine mainland. These results contribute to the regional understanding of Bronze Age climates on Cyprus, give insight into the expression of global climate forcing mechanisms such as the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Siberian High, and provide potential evidence for reduced anthropogenic land-use during the 4.2 ka BP and 3.2 ka BP Events supporting what is documented in archaeological archives. • Two 5000-year-old multiproxy records from the Akrotiri Marsh, southern Cyprus • Both the 4.2 K and 3.2 K climate events had an impact on the island's water balance. • Pollen & diatoms infer Early Bronze Age peak aridity between 4.3 & 4.1 cal ka BP • Repeat dry intervals in Late Bronze Age from 3.4 to 3.1 cal ka BP, W-Shaped event • Insight into the expression of the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Siberian High

Natural and climatic conditions in the south-east of Western Siberia and development of ethnocultures of the Ket’ River region (5th c. BC — 17th c. AD)

The paper presents the analysis of the natural and climatic conditions of the Early Iron and Middle Ages in the archaeological region of Priketye (Ket’ River region; Verkhneketsky district of the Tomsk Oblast, middle taiga) based on the available archaeological data and spore-and-pollen diagram of Maksimkin Yar, 58°30'N, 86°48'E, 100–150 m.a.s.l. (Blyakharchuk, 2012). The chronology of the archaeological sites and monuments covers a large time span — from the Neolithic to the late Middle Ages, including the time of the arrival of Russian farmers into the area. The aim of the study is to reconstruct the dynamics of the natural environment during the existence of the archaeological cultures of the indicated time interval using paleopalynological data from a nearby spore-and-pollen section, as well as to demonstrate the capabilities and advantages of complex paleoecological-archaeological research in the taiga zone of Western Siberia (middle course of the Ket’ River near the Maksimkin Yar village) previously not covered by such studies. The material and source of the archaeological data com-prised collections and archives of exploratory and stationary excavations of the archaeological sites from the area in the vicinity of the Maksimkin Yar village. Paleopalynological (spore-and-pollen diagram) and paleoecological (botanical composition of peat) data were obtained and published by one of the authors earlier (Blyakharchuk, 2012). In this work, comparative historical and statistical methods of the analysis of archaeological data were employed, along with two paleoecological methods (spore-and-pollen analysis and analysis of the botanical com-position of peat) with respective statistical processing of the numerical data from these analyses. The pa-leoecological block of information is presented graphically in the form of a spore-and-pollen diagram built on the basis of the paleopalynological data and two radiocarbon dates covering the studied time interval. The Bacon software was used to calibrate the radiocarbon dates and to date each sample. The studies have shown that the climate change in the boreal forest zone of Western Siberia influenced the lifestyle and economic activities of the population of the Priketye area. Correlation of the climatic and cultural events of the studied area with neighboring southwestern, southern, and southeastern regions showed their synchroneity with the dynamics of the hydrocli-mate on these territories. During the Iron Age and after the end of the late Middle Ages, there was a synchronous increase in humidity, both in the steppe zone and in the forest zone. In the Bronze Age and during the high Middle Ages, the steppe zone was humid, but less atmospheric precipitation fell out in the forest zone. These fluctuations in the moisture content are well correlated with the 500–600-year hydrological cycles in the steppe zone, identi-fied by geochemical indicators of the steppe Shira Lake in Khakassia (Kalugin et al., 2013, p. 251). Changes in the hydroclimatic conditions in the forest and steppe zones had different effects on the local cultures and could stimulate either their rise or decline, as well as migrations.

“They Gave the Children China Dolls”: Toys, Socialization, and Gendered Labor on American Plantations

ABSTRACT Play has long been understood to be a key aspect of childhood socialization into gender roles, including gendered labor. Yet, some have reasonably assumed that enslaved children on plantations in the United States had little time for play and that any toys owned by them would have been homemade and thus difficult to later identify archaeologically. Evidence from slavery-related sites in the Digital Archaeological Archive of Comparative Slavery (DAACS), however, demonstrates that formal toys in the form of porcelain dolls, toy dishes, marbles, and military toys were not uncommon possessions for enslaved children in the American South. The recovery of formal toys in living quarters used by enslaved people is especially surprising given that their intended socialization messages did not align with the future gendered labor roles of enslaved children. These toys thus reveal the complicated socializing forces and messages about gendered labor that enslaved children encountered through play.

Is it the Thought that Counts? An evaluation of Digital Archaeological Data Archiving in Catalonia

Archaeological data archiving has not been a major concern in Catalonia. The heritage legal corpus does not engage with the archiving and curation of archaeological data other than the excavation reports. However, it highlights the responsibility of the administration in cataloguing and disseminating the cultural heritage. For this reason, a lot of effort has been invested during the past few years in inventorying known archaeological sites and publishing archaeological reports, with the aim of increasing the transparency of the administration towards its citizens. This article describes the present situation for archaeology in Catalonia, its legal framework and the main initiatives carried out to archive, manage, and publish archaeological data from a user's point of view. Its main aim is to evaluate the current state of archaeological data archives and public databases by analysing the existing platforms with a set of indicators. This assessment leads to the conclusion that the current repositories and databases could be more worthwhile if some limitations were overcome, but also that the advance in archaeological data archiving is restricted by existing law.

The natural history of alpha angle in the last seventeen centuries

Hip osteoarthritis is one of the most important and debilitating diseases affecting thousands of people all over the world. On the other hand, femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) is one of the known important causes of hip osteoarthritis. Cam deformity frequently presents in FAI showing an increased alpha angle. Increased alpha angle has been observed among young patients involved in demanding physical activities such as in sports (40-60%), whereas among the non-athletic population, increased alpha angle was observed in 15-20%. Although femoroacetabular pathology has been described over the recent years, it is not possible to determine when the angle increase actually begins prior to diagnosis. The aim of our study is to evaluate the femoral alpha angle in different human femurs in different civilization eras in West Mediterranean area. Available ancient femurs were selected from the Collection Center belonging to the archeological archives (ancient necropolis) from the fourth, fourteenth and eighteenth centuries. A comparison of the alpha angle was made of the measurements from the different groups accompanied by a sample of present-day femurs from the radiology database of CT scans. Data from 243 femoral bones were collected, 50 of which from the fourth century, 26 from the fourteenth century, 68 from the eighteenth century, and 99 femurs from the 20/twenty-first century. Alpha angles in all historical samples showed pathological values (> 55º) up to a maximum of 11.5% of the cases. Meanwhile, the actual series showed pathological alpha angle in 60.1% of the cases with statistical significant differences. The studied femurs of the western Mediterranean region from the fourth, fourteenth and eighteenth centuries showed pathological alpha angles in a smaller proportion than the actual sample. Level III, retrospective studies.

Application of Human Adipose-Derived Stem cells for Bone Regeneration of the Skull in Humans.

Archeological archives report cranioplasty as 1 of the oldest surgical procedures; however, it was not until the last century that true advances have been made. Alternative approaches are necessary to achieve optimal closure of the defect with fewer adverse effects. We aim to evaluate the use of human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs) alone or seeded in scaffolds as the main treatment for cranial bone defects and to assess human patient outcomes. A systematic review was performed by querying PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature databases with the MeSH terms: "adipose-derived stem cells," "cranial bone defect," "stromal vascular factor," "fat grafting," as well as synonyms in combinations determined by our search strategy. We included human models that used hADSCs as primary therapy. We excluded studies in languages other than English. One hundred ninety-four studies were identified after removal of duplicates. Four articles that used hADSCs as the main therapy to treat calvarial defects in humans were included. One article applied the cell therapy alone, and 3 used β-tricalcium phosphate granules as a scaffold to seed the hADSCs. Bone regeneration was reached in a short and intermediate period using autologous hADSCs in humans with no major adverse effects in all 4 articles included. A long-term follow-up study (6 years) exhibited late infections and reabsorption of the β-tricalcium phosphate scaffold seeded with hADSCs.

Red Sky at Night: digital archiving in England 2020

Across Europe, countries are at different stages of dealing with digital archaeological archives and how those archives are dealt with is affected by differences in statutory requirements, legal ownership of archives and infrastructure. In England, there is no single national repository for archaeological archives and there is no legal requirement to deposit either physical or digital archives with public bodies, and deposition rates for digital remain low. The archaeological sector remains aware of the implications of producing ever-growing quantities of born-digital data, which interested parties are attempting to address. The current framework and situation regarding digital archiving in England, therefore, offers an interesting case study for how digital archiving is dealt with through the application of professional standards, rather than legislative requirements. This article aims to summarise the current situation regarding digital archaeological archives in England. Across the UK there has been a great deal of work and focus on archaeological archives, driven by two main factors: archaeological archives are curated by a network of regional and local museums and currently resources are shrinking in terms of storage capacity and archaeological curators. Repositories for physical archives can therefore be ill-prepared for the curation of digital archaeological archives, which can risk loss of archaeological digital data, and in 2017 this was recognised within the UK government's Mendoza Review. This article describes the current work to resolve these issues - including strengthening the planning process, providing standards and guidance for data creators and repositories.

A Snapshot in Time: a review of current approaches to archaeological archiving in Scotland

Hosted by Historic Environment Scotland (HES), the National Record of the Historic Environment (NRHE) is the primary place of deposit for archaeological archives in Scotland. Built up over several decades, the archives hold over 1.6m items, both analogue and digital, linked to a site inventory of over 320,000 site records relating to the archaeological and architectural history of Scotland. Initially the survey archive of the former Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, the collections now include project archives from professional archaeological companies, academic researchers and, increasingly, community projects. A range of policy and professional drivers, as well as best practice, encourage archival deposition. The digital component of the archive has grown considerably over the last decade. In response, the NRHE has invested in preservation software to manage these holdings and has submitted an application for CoreTrustSeal. The NRHE is available online through the Canmore database and web-map applications. The online presence is assessed against the FAIR Data principles.

Belated Measures - the Reality of Digital Archaeological Archiving in Poland

Archaeology in Poland, as in any other corner of the world, thrives on the application of digital technologies in fieldwork and subsequent analysis. Unfortunately, legal and administrative solutions have not been responsive enough to keep up with these changes. This article summarises the reality of archaeological digital archiving in Poland, shaped by a legally determined focus on paper documentation and the decentralisation of the state heritage service. The practice of digital archaeological archiving is illustrated by the results of a survey carried out among archaeologists from provincial heritage offices. It has revealed that, while they struggle with a lack of adequate technical measures and skills, they also opt for increasing the significance and proportion of digital archaeological archives and realise what should be done for this Digital Dark Age to end. On a more general level, the existence of digital documentation has already been recognised in laws on archiving and implementation of IT solutions. This article describes the actions taken at a national level to tackle these issues; namely, two state repositories: one for electronic documents and the other for digital resources of science and culture. It also presents current initiatives of the National Institute of Cultural Heritage in this regard.

Probabilistic approach to geomagnetic field modelling of data with age uncertainties and post-depositional magnetisations

Holocene geomagnetic field models are used to study processes in Earth's core, millennial scale variations in solar activity and to relatively date geological and archaeological archives. Constructing models from magnetic field directions and intensities stored in archaeological artefacts, igneous rocks and sediment records is challenging due to the sparse data distribution and the large chronological and magnetic uncertainties associated with the data. In addition, data from sediment records are further complicated by the effects of post-depositional remanent magnetisations (pDRMs) that lead to a magnetic signal which is smoothed and offset in time. Here we present a new probabilistic modelling approach that addresses these problems by co-estimating the geomagnetic field and the age of the data as well as accounting for the effects of pDRM and systematic directional errors in the sedimentary data. The use of a flexible Student's t-distribution in the likelihood function removes the need for outlier rejection which may otherwise lead to excessive smoothing of the model when applied to data with uncertain ages. A final ensemble of models is obtained through Hamiltonian Monte Carlo simulation of the posterior distribution. The modelling approach is tested and evaluated using synthetic data generated from the prior with an equivalent spatial and temporal distribution to the real data and corrupted with realistic noise.

Settlement, landscape and land-use change at a Pictish Elite Centre: Assessing the palaeoecological record for economic continuity and social change at Rhynie in NE Scotland

The first millennium AD was a transformative period when many of the medieval kingdoms of Europe began to take shape, but despite recent advances in palaeoecological and archaeological research there remains a shortage of interdisciplinary collaborative research targeting this period. For some regions we know relatively little about the societies who lived during this formative period. This current investigation focusses on an early medieval elite centre near to Rhynie in NE Scotland; an important power-centre during the fourth–seventh centuries AD as evidenced by a remarkable series of Class I Pictish symbol stones, fortified enclosures at Cairn more, Tap o’ Noth and the Craw-Stane, as well as high status metal-working and a range of continental imports from the Craw-Stane enclosure. However, by the end of the seventh century AD, elite focus appears to have shifted elsewhere with the Craw-Stane and Cairn More enclosures all being abandoned. By combining paleoenvironmental analysis with available historical and archaeological archives this paper provides new insights into societal change during the first Millennium AD, with focus on the economic, social and environmental impacts caused by the rise and subsequent abandonment of elite nodes of power. A calibrated age of AD 260–415, near the base of the core, coincides with the earliest dates for the Craw-Stane complex and pre-dates the construction of the nearby Cairn More enclosure. The results provide a rare snapshot of the Late Roman Iron Age to Medieval environment of Northeast Scotland. This centre appears to have been supported by a rich agricultural landscape, with evidence of pastoral and arable farming, and potential metal working. One of the most significant findings of this study has revealed that despite abandonment of these elite enclosed sites by the seventh century AD, people continued to utilise the surrounding landscape and available resources right through until modern times.

Digital Repatriation as a Decolonizing Practice in the Archaeological Archive

Digital Repatriation as a Decolonizing Practice in the Archaeological Archive

High elevation ice patch documents Holocene climate variability in the northern Rocky Mountains

Paleoclimate records from ice cores generally are considered to be the most direct indicators of environmental change, but are rare from mid-latitude, continental regions such as the western United States. High-elevation ice patches are known to be important archaeological archives in alpine regions and potentially could provide records important for Earth System Model evaluation and to understand linkages between climate and early human activities, but this potential largely is unexplored. Here we use a well-dated ice-core record from a shallow ice patch to investigate Rocky Mountain winter-season climate during the Holocene. Our records indicate that this ice patch consistently accumulated ice over the past 10 kyr, preserving a regionally representative climate record of stable water isotopes and ice accretion rates that documented generally cooler and wetter conditions during the early Holocene and 500 years of anomalous winter season warmth centered at 4100 cal yr BP followed by a rapid cooling and 1500 years of cooler and wetter winters.

Black carbon traces of human activities in stalagmites from Turkey

Speleothems are recognized as sensitive recorders of climatic fluctuations in the past and provide precisely dated and highly resolved environmental records. However, their potential as an archaeological archive is not fully acknowledged yet. Here we present several stalagmites containing soot and charcoal layers from various caves in Turkey and provide evidence that these black carbon layers are directly related to human activity. The archaeological artefacts found in Tabak and Kocain caves in SW Turkey support the linkage between soot and charcoal layers existence and human activity in the caves. For this study, we focus on stalagmites from Tabak and Kocain cave. To explore the age and nature of the soot and charcoal layers within stalagmites Ta-9, Ta-10 and Ko-1, Uranium series dating, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and thin section analyses were performed. The episodic soot and charcoal deposition in stalagmites Ta-9 and Ta-10 occurred between 7424 ± 225 yr BP and 6670 ± 218 yr BP while the soot and charcoal layers in stalagmite Ko-1 formed between 2830 ± 189 yr BP and 470 ± 56 yr BP. In combination with the archaeological inventory in Tabak Cave, the soot and charcoal layers within stalagmites Ta-9 and Ta-10 show that the cave was used repeatedly as a burial site during Chalcolithic period. In Kocain Cave was also used repeatedly between the Iron Age and Medieval Period, most likely for ritual activities and for providing animals with water from a small spring in the entrance to the cave. The soot and charcoal layers within stalagmites from Turkey prove that speleothems are also important as archaeological archives.

The Matrix: Connecting Time and Space in archaeological stratigraphic records and archives

The records of archaeological stratigraphic data and the relationships between stratigraphic units are fundamental to understanding the overall cohesiveness of the archaeological archive of an excavation. The information about individual units of excavation identified on sites with complex stratigraphy is most often held in the site database records and stratigraphic matrix diagrams, usually documenting relationships based on the laws of stratigraphic superposition and the Harris matrix conventions (Harris 1979). However, once the matrix diagram has been used to record the information during excavation, there is far less consistency in how those stratigraphic records, and any associated phasing information, are finally deposited in the archives. For that valuable data to be successfully identified and re-used (particularly if the rest of the data is in a database), the stratigraphic and phasing data needs to be in a format that can be interrogated as part of the database. In practice, often only a (paper) copy of the matrix diagrams make the archive. This means that the critical temporal and spatio-temporal relationships upon which the phasing of sites is built, cannot usually be interrogated or (re)used without lengthy and wasteful re-keying of that data into another version of the database. The stratigraphic, sequencing and temporal information held in a matrix is fundamental in further studies of the site records and in working out how the site may relate to other excavated sites of similar or related dates and phases. This article will suggest ways in which the stratigraphic data from excavations and the reasoning processes carried out in subsequent analysis could be better managed, to make matrices (re)useable as part of a more integrated digital archive. This article examines how conceptual reference modelling, particularly using temporal relationships, can be used to explore these issues and how associated technologies could enable semantically-enriched deductions about the spatio-temporal and purely temporal relationships that fundamentally link archaeological data together. It will also consider where further work is needed both to deal with analysis of spatial or temporal records and to enhance Bayesian chronological modelling and associated temporal reasoning, and how this may form the basis for new linkages between archaeological information across space-time.

Reflections in shadow: Excavating the personal archives of Paul Jacobsthal and EM Jope

The formation of archives has been a key facet of the archaeological discipline since its inception, critical in the production of knowledge from the destructive excavation that occurs in the field. The ongoing ‘archival shift’ within the humanities from archives as mere sources of secondary information to primary topics of research has presented new potential for the study of historic archaeological archives. This article explores the personal archives of two great scholars of Iron Age Celtic art, Paul Jacobsthal and EM Jope, held at the Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford. Shedding new light on their engagement and interaction with the objects that they studied, the author explores the archive’s power to illuminate the ways in which the scholars’ methods, experiences and encounters shaped the knowledge that they produced about the past. Through presenting the archives as both primary sources of historical information and vibrant material entities, worthy of ‘excavation’ in their own right, the article advocates an assemblage-based archaeological approach to archival engagement.

Records of Dispossession: Archival Thinking and UNESCO's Nubian Campaign in Egypt and Sudan

Abstract This article discusses the creation of architectural and archaeological archives in newly independent Egypt and Sudan during the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, organized by UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). This initiative took place in the contiguous border regions of Egyptian and Sudanese Nubia from 1960 until 1980 in response to the building of the Aswan High Dam. Contingency in these archives demonstrates the necessity of acknowledging the (post-) colonial social and historical conditions in which they were produced. UNESCO's campaign sought to record ancient remains that would be submerged by the High Dam's floodwaters. During the campaign, UNESCO set up 'documentation centres' that helped codify what knowledge about Nubian architecture/archaeology might be archive-worthy, producing index cards dedicated to this purpose in Egypt (concentrating on monuments) and Sudan (centring on archaeological sites). This practice – echoed by other organizations involved in the work – was often purposefully forgetful of contemporary Nubia, whose material traces were also soon to be flooded. Nevertheless, such practices rendered visible other unauthorised histories of Nubia that subverted archival knowledge production: histories of local involvement with the campaign and now-submerged Nubian settlements. This article therefore argues that it is not only possible, but also ethically imperative, to repurpose the Nubian campaign's archives towards the acknowledgement of erased Nubian histories.

A multidisciplinary study of an exceptional prehistoric waste dump in the mountainous inland of Calabria (Italy): Implications for reconstructions of prehistoric land use and vegetation in Southern Italy

The mountainous inland of northern Calabria (Southern Italy) is known for its sparse prehistoric human occupation. Nevertheless, a thorough multidisciplinary approach of field walking, geophysical survey and invasive research led to the discovery of a major archaeological archive. This archive concerns a rich multi-phased dump, spanning about 3000 years (Late Neolithic to Late Imperial Roman Age) and holding two Somma-Vesuvius tephra. Of these, the younger is a distinct layer of juvenile tephra from the Pompeii eruption, while the older concerns reworked tephra from the Bronze Age AP2 eruption (ca. 1700 cal. yr BP). The large dump contains abundant ceramics, faunal remains and charcoal, and most probably originated through long-continued deposition of waste in a former gully like system of depressions. This resulted in an inversed, mound-like relief, whose anthropogenic origin had not been recognized in earlier research. The tephras were found to be important markers that support the reconstruction of the occupational history of the site. The sequence of occupational phases is very similar to that observed in a recent palaeoecological study from nearby situated former lakes (Lago Forano/Fontana Manca). This suggests that this sequence reflects the more regional occupational history of Calabria, which goes back to ca. 3000 BC. Attention is paid to the potential link between this history and Holocene climatic phases, for which no indication was found. The history deviates strongly from histories deduced from the few, but major palaeorecords elsewhere in the inlands of Southern Italy (Lago Grande di Monticchio and Lago Trifoglietti). We conclude that major regional variation occurred in prehistoric land use and its impacts on the vegetation cover of Southern Italy, and studies of additional palaeoarchives are needed to unravel this complex history. Finally, shortcomings of archaeological predictive models are discussed and the advantages of truly integrated multidisciplinary research.