Arabic-speaking Regions Research Articles

Validation of the Arabic Version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-HSS Among Tunisian Medical Residents (A-MBI-MR): Factor Structure, Construct Validity, Reliability, and Gender Invariance

Background: Burnout is a major problem for physical and mental health of medical residents. The key for maintaining well-being and quality of care of residents is the assessing tool. The study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS) among Tunisian medical residents by assessing its factor structure, construct validity, reliability, and gender invariance. Methods: A total of 552 residents, aged 27.01 ± 1.92, 219 males (39.7%) and 333 females (60.3%) completed the Arabic version of the A-MBI-MR. The exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor (CFA) analyses were performed to identify the factor structure, with assessments of internal consistency of the model, including gender measurement invariance. Results: The results indicate a high average variance extracted (AVE > 0.50) and factor loading of the scale, signifying robust construct validity and clearly suggesting that the items serve as essential indicators for assessing several dimensions of burnout. The reliability analysis demonstrates excellent and acceptable internal consistency across all areas of emotional exhaustion, personal accomplishment, and depersonalization (Cronbach’s α = 0.95, 0.98, and 0.871) respectively. The CFA confirmed the three-factor structure of the A-MBI-MR, with fit indices indicating an adequate model fit: CFI = 0.945, TLI = 0.938, GFI = 0.951, RMSEA = 0.074, RMSEA CI (0.066, 0.081), RMSEA p-value= 0.000, SRMR = 0.044. Results from the measurement invariance analysis of the MBI scale demonstrated robust invariance between male and female participants. Conclusions: The MBI-MR in Arabic for medical residents is reliable, valid, and effective for measuring burnout levels in Arabic-speaking regions.

Leveraging Social Media and Deep Learning for Sentiment Analysis for Smart Governance: A Case Study of Public Reactions to Educational Reforms in Saudi Arabia

The Saudi government’s educational reforms aim to align the system with market needs and promote economic opportunities. However, a lack of credible data makes assessing public sentiment towards these reforms challenging. This research develops a sentiment analysis application to analyze public emotional reactions to educational reforms in Saudi Arabia using AraBERT, an Arabic language model. We constructed a unique Arabic dataset of 216,858 tweets related to the reforms, with 2000 manually labeled for public sentiment. To establish a robust evaluation framework, we employed random forests, support vector machines, and logistic regression as baseline models alongside AraBERT. We also compared the fine-tuned AraBERT Sentiment Classification model with CAMeLBERT, MARBERT, and LLM (GPT) models. The fine-tuned AraBERT model had an F1 score of 0.89, which was above the baseline models by 5% and demonstrated a 4% improvement compared to other pre-trained transformer models applied to this task. This highlights the advantage of transformer models specifically trained for the target language and domain (Arabic). Arabic-specific sentiment analysis models outperform multilingual models for this task. Overall, this study demonstrates the effectiveness of AraBERT in analyzing Arabic sentiment on social media. This approach has the potential to inform educational reform evaluation in Saudi Arabia and potentially other Arabic-speaking regions.

Predicting language, cognition, and social skills in individuals with Autism spectrum disorder using the Arabic validation of Gilliam Autism Rating scale-Third Edition

The Gilliam Autism Rating Scale-Third Edition (GARS-3) has emerged as a pivotal instrument in the diagnostic assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), with its utility extending across linguistic and cultural boundaries. This study endeavors to adapt and validate the GARS-3 for the Arabic-speaking population, addressing the paucity of culturally congruent diagnostic tools in the Arab world. The primary objective is to validate the Arabic version of GARS-3 (A-GARS-3) to assess children with and without ASD, ensuring the scale’s reliability and validity within the target population. A methodical cross-sectional study design was employed, encompassing a sample of 178 participants from both educational and clinical settings in Saudi Arabia. The process involved direct translation, expert panel review, back-translation, and pilot testing to ensure semantic equivalence and cultural relevance. Data were collected using the A-GARS-3, and analyses included Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (EFA and CFA), internal consistency reliability measures, and a One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to establish concurrent validity. The A-GARS-3 demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.971; McDonald’s omega = 0.972) and strong construct validity, with factor loadings and model fit indices substantiating the factor structure. Predictive validity was confirmed through significant correlations between the Autism Index and the subscales, particularly in the domains of social interaction and communication. The A-GARS-3 is a psychometrically sound instrument that offers reliable assessment for ASD within the Arab cultural context. The positive validation outcomes indicate that the scale is an effective, culturally adapted tool for the localized diagnosis of ASD. The validated scale has significant implications for enhancing ASD screening and diagnostic practices in Arabic-speaking regions, potentially improving early diagnosis and intervention strategies.

The validity and reliability of the Arabic version of the EQ-5D in atrial fibrillation patients in a conflict country: a study from Syria

BackgroundThe EQ-5D is one of the most commonly used tools to establish health-related quality of life (QoL). EQ-5D data in atrial fibrillation (AF) patients in the Middle East are lacking.ObjectivesThis study aims to evaluate the reliability and validity of the Arabic version of the EQ-5D in AF inpatients in Syria.MethodsThe study involved patients admitted to the emergency department of Tishreen’s University Hospital in Latakia with AF as the primary diagnosis between the 1st of June 2021 and the 1st of June 2023. Arabic versions of the EQ-5D, EQ-VAS and SF36 questionnaires were administered to patients. Validation was done using convergent, discriminant, and known-groups validity, while reliability was conducted using EQ-5D retesting within 2–4 weeks.Results432 participants were included in the study with a mean ± standard deviation of 63 ± 15. Males represented 242 (56%) of the participants. All hypotheses relating EQ-5D responses to external variables were satisfied. All three validation hypotheses demonstrated that the EQ-5D had the convergent, discriminant and known group validity to assess QoL in this cohort. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for test-retest reliability ranged between 0.74 and 0.88, while Cohen’s κ ranged between 0.72 and 0.86. Cronbach’s α value for internal consistency was 0.73.ConclusionThe Arabic version of EQ-5D was valid and reliable in measuring QoL in AF inpatients in Syria. This validation opens the door for more widespread use of the EQ-5D in Arabic-speaking regions, facilitating better-informed healthcare decisions and improving patient care strategies in Syria and other Middle Eastern countries.

The Synod of Dort in Arabic: Bodleian MS Marsh 268

ABSTRACT Bodleian MS Marsh 268 is a translation of the Heidelberg Confession, the Belgic Catechism, and a selection from the Standards of the Reformed Church. Completed in May 1619 at the conclusions of the Synod of Dort, it is the first documents about Protestant theology in Arabic, and it demonstrates that the Synod was preparing for proselytization in Arabic-speaking regions of Dutch commercial and colonial expansion.

Psycholinguistics Study on the Interplay of Bilingualism on Selected Cognitive Functions Based on Threshold Hypotheses among Saudi International School Students

This study investigates the threshold hypothesis in Saudi international school students. While this hypothesis has been extensively researched in the West, its application in Arabic-speaking regions, particularly Saudi Arabia, remains unexplored. This paper compares the executive function (metalinguistic awareness, inhibitory control, attentional control, and working memory) differences between the three levels of bilinguals (balanced, dominant, and semi) in male secondary school students in Saudi Arabia. Participants took language tests (TOEFL for English, GCSE for Arabic) and four cognitive tasks (grammatical judgment task, Stroop Task, semantic and phonemic fluency task, and Backward-digit-recall task). A quantitative causal-comparative analysis concluded that there was no significant difference between the performance of balanced, dominant, and semi-bilinguals on executive function tasks, except for the phonemic task. However, the study showed that semi-bilinguals performed poorly in all cognitive tasks. Thus, balanced and dominant bilinguals perform equally in inhibitory control, mental flexibility, and metalinguistic and semantic tasks.

Psychometric Properties of the Arabic Version of the Mindfulness in Teaching Scale

Objectives: Interest in Mindfulness in several professions including teaching has increased. To develop the techniques and methods based on mindfulness, several research papers were carried on this topic in teaching according to a comprehensive definition that takes into account awareness, memory and retention to describe a variety of teaching practices, processes and features. Methods: The original version of the Mindfulness in Teaching Scale (MTS) was in English. The researchers translated it into Arabic and administered it to a sample of 554 Jordanian teachers. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported a two-factor structure (teacher intrapersonal mindfulness and teacher interpersonal mindfulness) as proposed by the scale’s authors. Results: The results have demonstrated that the Arabic version of the mindfulness in teaching scale consisting of 14 items and two subscales is valid and reliable for teachers in Arabic speaking countries. The means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis of the MTS-A items were obtained. Mean and standard deviation values ​​ranged from 1.58 to 3.65 and 0.841 to 1.21, respectively, indicating a narrow dispersion in participant responses around the mean. Conclusions: The primary goal was to assess the MTS-A's validity and reliability among teachers in Jordan. With 9 items representing teachers' intrapersonal mindfulness and 5 items indicating teachers' interpersonal mindfulness, the 14-item two-factor CFA demonstrated that the model fit the data well. The findings show that the Arabic mindfulness in teaching scale, which consists of 14 questions and two subscales, is valid and trustworthy for use by instructors in Arabic-speaking regions.

Psychometric properties of principals’ attitudes toward inclusive education (PATIE) scale: Arabic version

BackgroundInclusive education is critical for the successful integration of students with disabilities into general education schools, and principals’ attitudes play a crucial role in this process. Despite the recognized significance of attitudes, there remains a gap in understanding these attitudes among principals in Arabic-speaking regions concerning inclusive education practices. This study aims to bridge this gap by validating and assessing the reliability of the Arabic version of the Principals’ Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education (PATIE) scale.MethodsTo measure these attitudes in the Arab region, the current study validated and assessed the reliability of the Arabic version of the Principals’ Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education (PATIE) scale using a sample of 391 principals from schools that have in place inclusion programs for students with disabilities. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to validate the scale’s structural, discriminant, and convergent validity, while Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) were utilized to evaluate the scale’s reliability.ResultsThe results demonstrated the strong validity and reliability of the Arabic version of the PATIE, with all five factors displaying good reliability.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that the scale can effectively measure attitudes toward inclusive education in Arabic-speaking countries. This study’s implications for research and practice are significant, as they underscore the importance of positive attitudes among principals in promoting inclusive education and provide a validated tool for measuring these attitudes.

Uncovering Cognitive Distortions in Adolescents: Cultural Adaptation and Calibration of an Arabic Version of the “How I Think Questionnaire”

This study adapted and validated the How I Think Questionnaire (HIT-Q), intending to develop an Arabic version of the measure. The study assessed the (a) factorial structure of the Arabic version of the How I Think Questionnaire (A-HIT-Q), (b) construct validity evidence of the A-HIT-Q based on the internal structure of the scale, and (c) criterion validity evidence, highlighting how the cognitive distortions measure relates to some key theoretical variables such as depression. This study involved 762 Tunisian students aged 15–22 years, using a non-probabilistic sampling method. The students were boys (n = 297) and girls (n = 465). They completed self-report forms on Arabic-HIT-Q, depression (HADS), sleep (ISI), and physical activity participation, adhering to all relevant ethical considerations. Exploratory analysis revealed four factors which accounted for 73.46% of the variations in the distortion measure. Reliability analysis showed good internal consistency (α = 0.915) and temporal stability (r = 0.879). Criterion validity evidence showed cognitive distortion (as measured with the A-HIT-Q) was significantly associated with physical activity participation, anxiety, depression, and insomnia. However, no significant relationship has been observed between cognitive distortion, age, gender, and study levels. The evidence gathered supports the utility of the A-HIT-Q. Thus, the instrument demonstrates high efficacy in assessing the levels of cognitive distortions among adolescent students residing in Arabic-speaking regions.

Tweet for help: the role of social media in disaster events and the case of the 2015 Mina stampede

ABSTRACT Social networks are important communication channel where individuals and emergency agencies can exchange information during disasters. The ability to detect disaster information or ‘reporting’ tweets would provide many advantages in disaster management during crowded events. This study explores Twitter behaviour during the Mina stampede tragedy in the 2015 Hajj by processing tweets posted over seven days during and after the incident (24–30 September 2015). Statistical features were derived from tweets, such as the number of hashtags, user mentions, and links, to provide an overview of the use of Twitter during this disaster. A classification model was built to filter reporting tweets using two Arabic natural language processing tools: Farasa and MADAMIRA. A support vector machine with a radial basis function kernel generated the best results in both tools (F-score: 88%–89%). The results will be useful to those who manage large, crowded events such as Hajj in Arabic-speaking regions.

Effects of Language Variety and Word Availability in Commercial Advertisements on Listener’s Lexical Recall

Commercial advertisements in Arabic-speaking regions tend to alternate between dialectal Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, but it is not yet clear whether language variety has any impact on listener’s lexical recall. Insight into this issue should help enterprises design their commercial advertisements in a linguistically intelligent manner. This study addresses two questions: 1) How does language variety (dialectal vs. standard) affect listener’s lexical recall in commercial advertisements? 2) Do listeners recall words that have appeared in dialectal advertisements better than those that did not appear in advertisements using the same variety? Fifteen Saudi participants responded to a forced-choice memory test with 24 yes-no questions (3 per advertisement) asking participants to report whether they heard a specific key word in eight advertisements that utilized different language varieties. The findings show that Arabic speakers tend to perceive both Modern Standard Arabic and dialectal Arabic in commercial advertisements similarly, but tend to recall the presence of a key word in an advertisement better than its absence. Future research may increase the sample size and examine more Arabic varieties.

Mining Arabic Twitter conversations on health care: a new approach to analysing Arabic language on social media

Purpose This paper aims to equip professionals and researchers in the fields of advertising, branding, public relations, marketing communications, social media analytics and marketing with a simple, effective and dynamic means of evaluating consumer behavioural sentiments and engagement through Arabic language and script, in vivo. Design/methodology/approach Using quantitative and qualitative situational linguistic analyses of Classical Arabic, found in Quranic and religious texts scripts; Modern Standard Arabic, which is commonly used in formal Arabic channels; and dialectical Arabic, which varies hugely from one Arabic country to another: this study analyses rich marketing and consumer messages (tweets) – as a basis for developing an Arabic language social media methodological tool. Findings Despite the popularity of Arabic language communication on social media platforms across geographies, currently, comprehensive language processing toolkits for analysing Arabic social media conversations have limitations and require further development. Furthermore, due to its unique morphology, developing text understanding capabilities specific to the Arabic language poses challenges. Practical implications This study demonstrates the application and effectiveness of the proposed methodology on a random sample of Twitter data from Arabic-speaking regions. Furthermore, as Arabic is the language of Islam, the study is of particular importance to Islamic and Muslim geographies, markets and marketing. Social implications The findings suggest that the proposed methodology has a wider potential beyond the data set and health-care sector analysed, and therefore, can be applied to further markets, social media platforms and consumer segments. Originality/value To remedy these gaps, this study presents a new methodology and analytical approach to investigating Arabic language social media conversations, which brings together a multidisciplinary knowledge of technology, data science and marketing communications.

Physical activity interventions promoted in the Arabic-speaking region: A review of the current literature.

The Arabic-speaking region suffers from insufficient levels of physical activity (PA). Assessing the effectiveness of PA interventions presents a scientifically evaluated method to reduce and prevent the current high burden of noncommunicable diseases affecting this region. This review examined implemented PA interventions and corresponding measured health outcomes in this region. The review was limited to studies prior to January 2020 using nine electronic academic databases. Only intervention-focused articles incorporating PA as the primary intervention or as a component of a multibehavioural intervention were included. Thirty-nine PA intervention studies were identified. Published PA interventions were implemented among 50% of the countries in the region. Seventy percent of the studies were conducted in the Gulf region and 25% in North Africa. A third of the studies was designed for children and adolescents. Accordingly, 40% of interventions were for patients living with comorbidities. Seventy percent of the studies included PA as part of a multidisciplinary intervention. Most studies included body mass index as an outcome parameter. Significant improvement (P < .05) in measured health outcomes was seen in 97% of studies. Thorough analysis includes social and culturally congruent aspects of the PA interventions and discussion of resultant health outcomes. This information furthers the understanding of effective PA interventions that can be adapted to target sedentary lifestyle behaviours in this region.

Activism and the Economy of Victimhood: A Close Look into NGO-ization in Arabic-Speaking Countries

Over the past ten years, countries in the Arabic-speaking region have witnessed a significant increase in the number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) branding themselves as LGBT-focused. Predominantly male-led, these organizations brought with their emergence a discourse around gender and sexuality that utilizes identity politics and narratives of victimhood. Consequently, NGOs became able to simultaneously secure funding, to claim struggles around gender, sexuality and bodily integrity as their own, and to appropriate local community and individual victories. The feminist thought became appropriated to legitimize neoliberal organizing. This essay provides a critique of identity politics used by NGOs, claiming representation of diverse queer voices, while reproducing narratives of victimhood. Drawing on a contextualized analysis of trends of the NGOization of activism in the region, this essay offers theoretical and empirical contributions around the complex geographies, continuities, and ruptures within the so-called civil society, state systems, and international funders. The essay questions what is “civil” about a society of functionaries that alienate oppressed populations deemed “unfit” to a foreign imaginary of victimhood. We here aim to expose the role the NGO-ization of activism plays in relation to maintaining the status quo around gender and sexuality, and erasing feminist histories. The essay exposes how victories claimed by NGOs are in fact the work and effort of those whose organizing is located outside the institutions. The essay suggests that LGBT-focused NGOs are often complicit with oppressive state systems and structures, promoting homonationalist narratives. We propose that much activism within NGOs is creating an economy of victimhood that is ultimately dependent on funding provided by states in the Global North. In this essay, we argue that Arundhati Roy's writing around the NGO-ization of resistance is also applicable to the context of the region, as it has material implications on queer intersectional feminist organizing and voices.

Food-based dietary guidelines of Arabic-speaking countries: a culturally congruent profile.

Dietary guidelines for food groups, types and portion sizes are common practice at the national level. As the relationship between nutrition and disease and the influence of cultural identity on individual behaviour become clearer, dietary guidelines necessarily evolve. Today, the Arabic-speaking region is experiencing a dual burden of undernutrition and increasing rates of overweight and obesity. Cultural congruency among dietary guidelines in the Arabic-speaking region and how they affect health education, health promotion, and nutrition programme planning or individual dietary behaviours have yet to be examined. The present work provides dietitians and public health professionals a narrative review of proposed food guidelines for the Arabic-speaking region. The current review examined five established dietary guidelines within the Arabic-speaking region, namely the Arab Food Dome (Arab Gulf states), the Healthy Food Palm (Saudi Arabia), the Lebanese Dietary Guidelines, the Omani Guide to Healthy Eating and the Qatar Dietary Guidelines, and compared findings with the regional Eastern Mediterranean guidelines developed by the WHO. Individual guideline recommendations are tabled for comparative review. The Arabic-speaking region.ParticipantsRespective Arabic-speaking populations. Health educators, community health practitioners and nutrition professionals can benefit from the cultural contexts associated with dietary guidelines in this region. Community-level policy and individual behaviour change will benefit from cultural sensitivity; health communication and behaviour change programming require cultural competence provided in the present review; and programme evaluation efforts (prior to and after implementation) should include a detailed understanding of how culture shapes regional policy and individual nutrition behaviours.

The Construction of the Concepts "Democracy" and "Republic" in Arabic in the Eastern and Southern Mediterranean, 1798-1878.

This article illuminates the construction of the concepts "democracy" and "republic" in the Arabic-speaking regions of the eastern and southern Mediterranean between 1798 and 1878. Examining these ideas through conceptual analysis on two levels, language construction and political discourse, the article reveals the layers these concepts acquired and their reception in the context of state reforms in the Ottoman Empire. While both "democracy" and "republic" evolved in Arabic after the French Revolution and acquired their modern morphological forms and content primarily between the 1820s and 1876, "republic" came into use and was perceived as relevant to local circumstances earlier than "democracy."

Peer-reviewed physical education journals from Arabic-speaking countries: a regional assessment

PurposeNon-communicable diseases (NCD) such as heart disease, diabetes and overweight and obesity are associated with physical inactivity and represent the leading cause of death globally. In the Arabic-speaking region, NCD is associated with more than 2.3 million deaths annually with rates expected to increase. Professional physical education (PE) journals are important resources in the dissemination of knowledge from evidence to practice. With the growing physical inactivity problem among Arabic-speaking countries, the purpose of this paper is to assess the availability culturally relevant peer-reviewed physical education journals in this region.Design/methodology/approachAn assessment of professional PE journals within this region was conducted using four academic databases and journal directories. The electronic search generated 14 PE-affiliated journals in Arabic-speaking countries with a publication status of active, interrupted or ceased; search parameters were limited to English, Arabic and French languages.FindingsResults indicated that no professional publications identified in this review predates to 2005 within the Arabic-speaking region. Although all 14 journals within the sample offer both electronic and open access, only one provided both print and electronic versions. Iraq was over-represented with 12 PE journals; no other country offered more than one.Originality/valueSystematic analyses of PE prevalence among Arabic-speaking countries are scarce, and there are no current evaluations of peer-reviewed publications addressing PE within the Arabic-speaking region. PE capacity building and collaboration can be fostered, improved and maintained when supported by regionally and culturally congruent research.

Peer-Reviewed Veterinary Journals From Arabic-Speaking Countries: A Systematic Review

BackgroundThe prevalence of diseases of foodborne and zoonotic origin in Arabic-speaking countries highlights the importance of collaboration between human and animal health professionals. However, accessibility of research and evidence-based practices in these countries is not well characterized. This brief report determines the availability of professional veterinary journals within the Arabic-speaking region. MethodsAn electronic search using 6 databases assessed for publication period, activity status, and available languages incorporated all aspects of veterinary medicine and specialties. ResultsAmong 29 veterinary journals identified, the oldest current publication originated 63 years ago, with 10 journals currently interrupted or ceased. All 19 currently active journals are available electronically as open access, with 8 also offered in paper format. Veterinary journals published within Arabic-speaking countries are predominantly produced in Egypt, Iraq, and Sudan. ConclusionElectronic access is lacking compared with English-speaking countries, and there is a lack of journals with an Arabic-language option. The reasons associated with language options in veterinary publications are not immediately apparent, yet may highlight differences among public health, health education, and zoonotic professionals and the populations they serve. Veterinary journals in Arabic-speaking countries do not adequately represent the overall region and are limited in access. Further evaluation of regional culture and publisher preferences is indicated to identify new collaboration opportunities among health professionals and local stakeholders.

Middle East information literacy awareness and indigenous Arabic content challenges

This article reports on researching “Middle East: Information Literacy awareness and indigenous Arabic World Wide Web content challenges”. The research reported upon was conducted in preparation for a training presentation which was delivered as a part of the UNESCO “Training the Trainers” (TTT) in Information Literacy workshop project that was held November 6–8, 2008 at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in Alexandria, Egypt. Although the concept of Information Literacy is relatively new worldwide, by now it is fairly well understood, practiced and pedagogically supported in the developed world. But, it is still quite a mystery for developing countries, especially in the Middle East and North Africa regions. Therefore, the presentation the authors were invited to deliver at the workshop aimed at creating a much needed broader awareness concerning the concept of Information Literacy, including the somewhat differing definitions which are used in various world regions and cultures, and the concept’s relevance to the advancement of knowledge, research, and the general level of education in the Arabic speaking world. Special attention was paid to these problems in the context of challenges faced by higher education institutions in the Middle East and North Africa regions. The authors discovered that the problem of the scarcity of indigenous Arabic content materials on the World Wide Web is inextricably related to the challenges of increasing the awareness of Middle East and North Africa audiences to the relevance of Information Literacy. The authors endeavor to explain in detail what this inter-relationship is, and why and how the increase of Arabic materials on the Web could then lead to an increase in the awareness of Information Literacy in those Arabic speaking regions. The workshop presentation aimed at explaining and promoting Information Literacy skills, not only to students and researchers, but also to future Information Literacy trainers (the participants at the UNESCO workshop). The language barrier, the Digital Divide, and the lack of adequate Arabic digital content/resources relating to Information Literacy, were all reviewed with the workshop participants, illustrated by real world case examples, and discussed, in an effort to simultaneously try to work toward a consensus approach to teaching and learning the IL concept, and at the same time create a heightened Information Literacy awareness. Rather than simply amplify in detail the technical contents of the workshop presentations the authors made in this article, and with the encouragement of the Review’s editor and guest editor, the authors decided to “tell their story” in anecdotal fashion, sharing with the workshop participants tales of the many challenges they faced in just preparing materials for their presentations – and covering both the presentation format and the presentation content aspects, including explaining why they selected a specific teaching and learning approach, and how they dealt with various delivery and implementation challenges. By so doing, readers faced with similar teaching challenges might be better prepared to respond to the many challenges, both in the context of the preparations they will be required to make as well as in the context of their actual content delivery at their workshops.

RIFA⊂A RAFI⊂ AL-TAHTAWI AND HIS CONTRIBUTION TO THE LEXICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN LITERARY ARABIC

In the 19th century, Europe had a tangible impact on the Arab East. During this period, Arabic-speaking regions were brought into intimate contact with the West, both through military intrusion (e.g., the French in 1798–1801 and the British in Egypt in 1882), and institutional penetration (e.g., the founding of Western-style schools and higher-education institutions in the Levant in the 1800s by Christian missionaries such as the Syrian Protestant College in 1866, now the American University of Beirut, and [the Jesuit] St. Joseph University, also in Beirut, in 1874). This overpowering European encroachment on the Arab East in the 19th century resulted in cultural and linguistic identity crises. Muhammad ⊂Ali, who ruled Egypt from 1805 until 1848, dispatched groups of students to Western countries such as Italy, Austria, and France to study at their universities and technical institutions. At home, he established schools with Western-language instruction, and sponsored translations of scientific works initially into Turkish, and later into Arabic, from Italian and French, thus making available new disciplines such as various branches of engineering, military science, and agriculture. In 1822, he established a printing press in the Bulaq section of Cairo.1 From then on, Arabicized versions of European terms such as “theater” (tiy―atru), “journal” (jurn―al), “the post” (al-busta), and “politics” (al-bulit―iq―a) signaled the arrival of Western institutions and technology in Arabic-speaking regions, and such terms were adopted by writers in their writings. The cultural, political, military, and technological challenges that resulted from the European contact with the Arab East, and the institutional changes that accompanied them, proved to be a crucial turning point in the development of the Arabic language, particularly its lexicon. However, interest in language matters was central to the Arab renaissance (Nahda) of the 19th century. Arab writers; intellectuals; and translators such Rifa⊂a Rafi⊂ al-Tahtawi (1801/2–73), (Ahmad) Faris al-Shidyaq (1801/04?–87), Nasif al-Yaziji (1800–71), and Butrus al-Bustani (1819–83), among others, debated Arabic linguistic issues in terms of their own literary and linguistic heritage. These and other authors discussed the “internal” needs of Arabic, not only issues of translating the culture of the Western societies. They wrote grammars and compiled other literary textbooks to facilitate the teaching of Arabic and to overcome difficulties of learning the language associated with older, traditional ways of language teaching and to raise awareness of the literary tradition of Arabs. These intellectuals also engaged in the preparation of glossaries and dictionaries appropriate to the needs of their societies.2