Parental Appraisals Research Articles

A randomized controlled trial evaluating the impact of the Supervising for Home Safety program on parent appraisals of injury risk and need to actively supervise.

A video to promote parents' appreciation of young children's risk of injury and need for active supervision was recently developed (Morrongiello, Zdzieborski, Sandomierski, & Lasenby-Lessard, 2009). Integrating this video with tailored activities resulted in the Supervising for Home Safety program. The current randomized, controlled trial evaluated the efficacy of this program for increasing parental appraisals of child-injury risk and the need to actively supervise 2- through 5-year-old children. Parents were recruited throughout the community and randomly assigned to either intervention (content focused on child-injury risks and supervision needs) or control (content focused on child nutrition and exercise) groups, with these balanced for child sex and age. Pre- and postintervention measures of parental appraisals of child-injury risk (vulnerability for injury, potential injury severity, preventability of injury) and supervision (value of active supervision, self-efficacy for actively supervising) were taken. Following exposure to the intervention, appraisals of children's injury risk and parents' need to actively supervise significantly increased in the intervention group but not the control group, and all effects, except change in vulnerability appraisal, persisted for 12 months after exposure to the intervention program. Additional analyses were conducted to explore barriers that parents identified to closely supervising and solutions they suggested to address barriers. The Supervising for Home Safety program produced the desired effects on parental appraisals. It holds promise as a program that may improve parents' supervision practices.

Evaluating a dynamic process model of wellbeing for parents of children with disabilities: A multi-method analysis.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate possible determinants of parent wellbeing using a contextual model of parent adjustment. One hundred forty parents of children with various disabilities (i.e., autism, intellectual disabilities, and other health impairments) participated in this investigation. Parents completed a survey consisting of basic demographic characteristics of the parent, child-disability characteristics, parent problem solving ability, access to information and resources, environmental/social supports, appraisals of threat and growth, and measures of life satisfaction and physical/mental health. Structural equation modeling was conducted to test a hypothesized contextual model of parent wellbeing. Results indicated strong fit to the a priori model. After controlling for the contribution of parent demographic variables, the largest contributors to the prediction of parent wellbeing were parent problem solving ability, access to resources, environmental/social supports, and parent appraisals of threat. Child functional impairment was not significantly associated with parent wellbeing. Access to resources and environmental/social supports have a greater direct effect on parent wellbeing than parent and child demographic variables and disability severity. Threat appraisals have direct and mediating effects on parent wellbeing. Implications related to the importance of resources and environmental/social supports, appraisals of threat and growth, and problem solving abilities on the wellbeing of parents of children with disabilities are discussed.

Comparison between mothers and fathers in coping with autistic children: a multivariate model

The main purpose of this research is to compare the differences between how mothers and fathers cope with autistic children based on a multivariate model that describes the relationships between parental psychological resources, parental stress appraisal and parental adjustment. 176 parents who lived in Israel (88 mothers and 88 fathers) of children aged between 6 to 16 most of them (81%) were diagnosed as suffering from PDD and the rest (19%) as suffering from PDDNOS. The parents answered several questionnaires measuring parental psychological resources (social support, sense of coherence, locus of control), parental appraisal of stress (challenge vs. threat), and parental adjustment (mental health and marriage quality). The results show that all the variables entered the path analysis model with the same pattern. However, some links between the variables are quite similar for mothers and fathers while others are different. The results lead to several interesting suggestions for future research using dynamic systems framework and process-oriented methodological approaches.

31 The Parental Process of Appraising Child Pain: An International Qualitative Study

Pain is a common experience among children and infants in clinical settings worldwide. Nurses often depend upon parents to aid in assessment of pain. Yet, the unique parent's processes of appraising pain are not fully known. The purpose of this study was to explore the social process of parent appraisal of child and infant pain and to examine cultural influences upon this appraisal. A qualitative design with grounded theory method was used to guide data collection and analysis in the larger international study. Settings were two acute care clinical sites, one in Rome, Italy and one at a large Midwestern tertiary hospital in the USA. This paper reports on findings from the Italian sample of 12 parents of children hospitalized in three units (the cardiac surgical intensive care, the neonatal intensive care unit and the oncology-emathology unit). Data were drawn from semi-structured interviews and bedside observations of parent-child interactions. A constant comparative data analysis approach resulted in coding of text and observation data, thematic naming, comparison of differences and commonalities between participants, and re-assembling of the themes. The core process of parent appraisal of pain was identified as “struggling to understand the hurdle of pain while protecting the child” Parents described a process of comparing, observing, grading, and rationalizing in their struggle to understand child pain. Unique cultural values and beliefs influenced the parent's depth of involvement in the appraisal process. Parent sense of success in protecting the child was interwoven with the relationship with the provider.

Great Expectations: The Biasing Effects of Reported Child Behavior Problems on Educational Expectancies and Subsequent Academic Achievement

Parental and child expectations of educational achievement have each been linked to a range of beneficial child outcomes. less is known about the formation of educational expectations, the potential biasing impact of child behavior problems on these expectations, and the prospective influence of expectations on child performance. to test these links, we analyzed longitudinal data (baseline, 5 year follow-up) for 884 children (53% female; M age =9.75 years) and their primary caregivers. Parent-reported child behavioral problems predicted parents’ educational expectations for their children over and above the children’s achievement scores. Parental expectations influenced children’s own expectations, an effect partially mediated by parental involvement in educational activities. Parental educational expectations also influenced children’s academic performance five years later, even controlling for the children’s baseline academic achievement. this influence was partially mediated by children’s expectations; both parent and child expectations had substantial independent effects on academic achievement. these data suggest that parents appear to view child behavior problems as indicative of persistent underlying characteristics, and adjust educational expectations downwards. lower expectations prospectively reduced child academic performance above and beyond indicators of child competence (such as past performance). these data indicate the importance of parent appraisals of child behavior and suggest avenues for intervention.

The Parental Appraisal of the Morbidity of Diarrhea in Infants and Toddlers (PAMODI) Survey

This study analyzed parental perception of the impact of diarrhea on quality of life of their children. A standardized questionnaire was completed by 2023 parents in Germany with children with diarrhea who were younger than 2 years old. Parents stated the most worrying aspects of diarrhea. A health score was measured using a visual analogue scale (0 = worst health, 100 = best health). Clinical symptoms were quoted by 72% of parents as one of the most worrying dimensions, with duration/frequency of diarrhea and weight loss perceived most meaningful. Next were behavioral/physical symptoms (51%), with an inflamed bottom for mild disease and pain for severe cases being most meaningful. Parental concern is characterized by sympathy and anxiety for the child. The health score for the diarrheal episode was 54.6 for mild and 33.9 for severe cases. Parents perceive a high disease burden of diarrhea and clinically less meaningful aspects play a significant role.

Mental health of Bosnian refugee children: A comparison of clinician appraisal with parent, child and teacher reports

This study compares clinician appraisal of Bosnian refugee children with independent parent, child and teacher reports. From whom and by what means can children “at risk” be reasonably identified? Forty-eight Bosnian refugee children (aged 7–20), resettled in Sweden 1994–95, were assessed clinically by means of a semi-structured interview. Thereafter, standardized mental health questionnaires were administered to parents (Achenbach's Child Behavior Checklist), children (Achenbach's Youth Self-Report and Macksoud's Posttraumatic Stress Reaction Checklist) and teachers (clinician designed School Competence Scale and Achenbach's Teacher's Report Form). On clinician interview, nearly half of the children (48%) were identified with one or more mental health problem “demanding further attention”. Depressiveness was the single most prevalent symptom (31%); followed by post-traumatic stress (23%), and anxiety-regressiveness (15%). At the same time, 75% of the children were rated by teachers as “quite competent” in school. Parent, child and clinician appraisals of primary school children showed broad similarities. Teachers reported a similar prevalence of child distress, but identified different symptoms and different children demanding attention. Evaluation of teenage youths showed greater disparity: teenagers labeled their own symptoms more often as post-traumatic stress reactions and teachers identified few youths in need of attention. Inter-relatedness among parent, child and clinician appraisals supports the robustness of our semi-structured interview. At the same time, apartness of teacher report underscores the need to incorporate an outside-world vantage point in the process of risk assessment. Also, a more concrete presentation of post-traumatic stress reactions and a higher “further attention” threshold for inward emotional problems seem called for.

Parental appraisal of the family impact of childhood developmental disability: Times of sadness and times of joy

Background Parental positive and negative appraisals of the family impact of childhood disability are tested as early predictors of parental self‐esteem and overall family adjustment in households with young children with intellectual and developmental disabilities.Method Within 103 Canadian families, 103 mothers and 55 fathers independently completed interviews in their home at two time points: 6 months after their child entered childhood disability services (T1), and one year later (T2).Results Longer‐term family adjustment was found to be predicted by level of parental negative appraisal of the family impact of disability, and by level of self‐esteem, for both mothers and fathers. For mothers, positive appraisal of childhood disability was also found to predict early family adjustment and was related to enhanced self‐esteem.Conclusions Gender differences in parental appraisal of the family impact of childhood disability appear to merge over time. Both positive and negative appraisals appear to coexist and are predictive of mothers' and fathers' perceived overall family adjustment in the longer term.

An Immediate and Long-Term Study of a Temperament and Parent-Child Interaction Therapy Based Community Program for Preschoolers with Behavior Problems

ABSTRACT The immediate and long-term effects of a Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) derived program offered at a Kaiser Permanente facility were evaluated. There were 73 participants in the initial sample and 23 in the 5–6 year follow-up sample. Child behaviors improved significantly immediately following treatment and some improvements were maintained at follow-up. Over 75% of the follow-up participants utilized additional therapy services following completion. Thus, sustained improvements may have been related to posttreatment services. Parent appraisals of their child's behaviors appeared to be as important as actual child behaviors when behavioral improvements were assessed. The benefits of this modified PCIT program are discussed.

A CROSS-SOCIETAL COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BEIJING AND HONG KONG CHILDREN'S SELF-CONCEPT

This was a cross-sectional comparative study of the self-concept of Beijing and Hong Kong grade three and five children. Beijing students scored much higher than Hong Kong students on the academic, social, physical and general domains and all the perspectives of parental appraisal, school appraisal, upward comparison and downward comparison. Boys were higher than girls on all domains, and on upward and downward comparison. Grade 3 students were higher than grade 5 students on the academic and physical domains and the perspectives of parental and school appraisal. Patterns of difference were found in the main effects of gender and grade as qualified by the interactions of society. Only children in Beijing were found to score higher than Hong Kong only children on academic, physical and general self-concept as well as school appraisal and upward comparison.

Parents' Appraisals, Reflected Appraisals, and Children's Self-Appraisals of Sport Competence: A Yearlong Study

This study investigated the contribution of the reflected appraisal process to the ontogeny of children's self-perceptions of physical competence. Emanating from symbolic interactionist thought, reflected appraisals refer to individuals' perceptions of others' evaluations of their abilities. The influence of parents' appraisals of their child's competence on the child's self-appraisals was hypothesized to be mediated by parents' reflected appraisals. Data were collected from a sample of 147 sixth graders and their parents in three waves over one school year. Structural equation modeling revealed that 1) parents' appraisals at Wave 1 influenced children's reflected appraisals of parents at Wave 2; 2) reflected appraisals at Wave 2 influenced children's self-appraisals at Wave 3, controlling for both the child's actual level in sport (as assessed by the child's grade in physical education) and the child's self-appraisals at Wave 1; and 3) the influence of parents' appraisals on their child's self-appraisals was nonsignificant when reflected appraisals were controlled for. This study supported the mediational role of the reflected appraisal process. The findings from this study provide a unique contribution to the sport socialization knowledge base by highlighting the role of the reflected appraisal process in the formation of children's self-appraisals of ability.

Obesity, appearance, and psychosocial adaptation in young African American children.

To evaluate the contributions of weight status, skin tone, peer teasing, and parental appraisals of child's size to self-esteem and psychosocial adjustment in overweight African American children. Overweight to very obese 5- to 10-year-old African American children (N = 117) completed measures of self-esteem, skin tone satisfaction, peer teasing, and body size perception. Caregivers completed the Child Behavior Checklist and rated their child's body size. Overweight was associated with low appearance self-esteem, and body size dissatisfaction with low global self-worth and low appearance self-esteem in children 8 and older. Appearance self-esteem but not global self-worth was lower in girls than boys. Parental perception of child's size as heavier than average was associated with low child appearance self-esteem. Heavier children also had more parental report of behavior and psychosocial problems, but their scores were in the nonclinical range. Child skin tone dissatisfaction was associated with low global self-worth. Weight-related peer teasing was associated with low self-esteem. The relationship between obesity and self-esteem in African American children depends upon age, gender, and children's experiences with teasing and parental evaluation of their size. Other factors, like skin tone satisfaction, contribute to a child's sense of self-worth.

Reflected Appraisals and Perceived Importance of Significant others' Appraisals as Predictors of College Athletes' Self-Perceptions of Competence

This study examined the reflected appraisal process with college athletes (N = 325). Specifically, the study tested: (a) the relative influence of the reflected appraisals of mothers, fathers, coaches, and teammates (i. e., how athletes perceive these others view their ability) on athletes' self-perceptions of competence, and (b) whether the importance placed on these significant others as sources of competence information moderated the relationship. Based on a factor analysis, composite variables were formed representing the reflected appraisals of the athletes'parents (i.e., father, mother) and the reflected appraisals of sport-others (i.e., coach, teammates). Regression analyses revealed that the reflected appraisals of parents (P = .21) and sport-others (/3 = .55) predicted self-perceptions of competence fp < . 05, R2 =. 45). Follow-up analyses determined that the reflected appraisal of sport-others was a significantly stronger predictor. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the interaction of reflected appraisals and the importance of significant others did not significantly add to the prediction of self-perceptions of competence fp > . 05, A R2 = .01) beyond the independent effects of these constructs. Results are discussed in terms of the reflected appraisal process and the influence of significant others on athletes' self-perceptions.

Family Adjustment to Childhood Developmental Disability: A Measure of Parent Appraisal of Family Impacts

To develop the Family Impact of Childhood Disability Scale (FICD) to assess subjective interpretation or "primary appraisal" of parents regarding the impact of a child with developmental disabilities on the family. A random sample of 87 families was assessed while children with developmental disabilities were in the preschool years. After 7 years had elapsed, 64 of these families were interviewed again when the children were in the preteen years. A set of standardized self-report measures provided mother and father views of child, parent, and family functioning. The FICD demonstrated adequate internal consistency, with some evidence of discriminant and predictive validity. The FICD total score, based on the discrepancy between positive and negative subscale scores, was found to be a significant predictor of future parenting stress of mothers and of fathers, even when controlling for other important explanatory variables such as marital adjustment and level of disability in a child. The 15-item FICD offers a brief assessment of both positive and negative parent appraisals, with a total discrepancy score that predicts long-term parenting stress.

Resource utilization by children with developmental disabilities in Kenya: discrepancy analysis of parents’ expectation-to-importance appraisals

The purpose of this study was to describe parental perceptions of eight physical and human resources available to meet the needs of children with developmental disabilities in Kenya. Specifically, the study assessed the discrepancy between the importance parents attached to specified resources and the expected use of those resources by their children with developmental disabilities. Discrepancy analysis was conducted on parents’ expectation-to-importance appraisals of eight resources identified in previous research including, health, education, friendships, husband/wife, religious organization, community membership/acceptance, employment/work, and home. Overall, parental appraisal of likely access-to-importance was significantly related across all eight physical and human resource areas. Discrepancy scores ranged from negative, through zero, to positive, categorized under-utilized, congruent, and over-utilized, respectively. Chi-square analyses were non-significant for gender across all resources with only slight gender differences noted on three resources. Most parents reported a match between expected use and importance in five of the eight community resources; health (57.4%), friends (54.6%), religious affiliation (59.8%), acceptance in the community (60.3%), and having one’s own home (62.6%). However, “husband/wife” fell outside the congruent range (50.4%), with slight gender differences noted. Finally, two resource areas where the majority of parents reported non-congruence were educational programs and employment/career service.

Parental stress and behaviour problems of children with developmental disability

The present paper focuses on the integration of two research foci in the field of developmental disability: models of the development and maintenance of children's problem behaviours, and parental stress associated with child characteristics. I propose a simple model whereby children's behaviour problems, parental stress, and parenting behaviour are related. Evidence is found for a central part of this model (that child behaviour problems lead to parental stress), but other aspects are as yet untested in the developmental disability field. Future refinement of the model is discussed, with an emphasis on the role of parental appraisal processes in understanding the mechanisms by which child behaviour problems affect parental well being. Finally, the practical implications of integrating research on children's behaviour problems and parental stress are briefly considered.

An Examination of Gender and Race Effects on the Parental Appraisal Process

In 1992, Matsueda developed a model of the self and its relationship to delinquent behavior that relies on the processes of appraisal and reflected appraisals. Matsueda acknowledged, however, that race and gender may substantially affect the appraisal process. This study explores the conditional effects of gender and race on Matsueda's model. The results demonstrated that the model fit was acceptable across race and gender subgroups, with the exception of African American adolescent females. Further examination, however, revealed significant differences in the appraisal process. Specifically, White adolescent females were more likely than adolescent males to be appraised delinquent because of their past delinquent behavior. Also, the impact of reflected appraisals on delinquent behavior was significantly greater for adolescent males. The findings support Matsueda's contention that gender and race affect the appraisal process. They suggest further that future analyses should consider the manner in which interactions and appraisals are structured by race and gender.

Gender, Reflected Appraisals, and Labeling: A Cross-Group Test of an Interactionist Theory of Delinquency

This article builds upon a symbolic interactionist model of delinquency (Matsueda 1992) by assessing whether an interactionist model can account for the gender gap in delinquent behavior. We argue that delinquency is determined in part by the self as conceived by symbolic interactionists, which in turn is determined by a process of labeling by significant others. We estimate a cross-gender model of delinquency using data from the National Youth Survey and find that, for both males and females, parental appraisals significantly affect youths' reflected appraisals, which in turn predict delinquency. Nevertheless, wefind some gender interactions: for males, parental labeling and reflected appraisals have a larger effect on delinquency, and males are more likely to be falsely accused by parents. Vhen we take into accoutnt gender differences in both levels of independent variables and the magnitude of effects of those variables, our model explains a substantial portion of the gender gap in delinquency.

Behaviour Problems Among Children with Down's Syndrome: Prevalence, Persistence and Parental Appraisal

Changes over time in the pattern of behaviour problems shown by 91 children with Down's syndrome, together with maternal appraisal of the seriousness of reported problems, were investigated through questionnaires completed by mothers. Fifty‐four individual behaviours were studied at mean ages 9 years 2 months and 13 years 9 months. There was a significant decline in the overall frequency of behaviour problems and in some disturbed behaviours, sleeping and toileting problems, and over‐activity. Only one problem‐lying‐became more common. However, many problems were found to be persistent among the same children.While mothers viewed relatively few behaviours as definite problems, a minority faced a multiplicity of perceived problems at both points in time. Running away was a common problem which particularly concerned mothers. Sleeping problems were generally seen as less problematic by Time 2, while stealing had become more so. Some individual problems were associated with the gender, age and developmental level of the children. Results suggest that behaviour problems may become set relatively early in life, and that families may benefit from help in preventing and dealing with problems well before the teenage years.

Factors Associated With Perceived Control Appraisals in a Family-Centered Early Intervention Program

Findings from 2 studies investigating sources of variations in perceived control appraisals of parents involved in a family-centered early intervention/family support program are described. Results indicated that parent, family, and child characteristics were not related to differences in control appraisals. Practitioner help-giving styles and, to a lesser extent, staff disciplines were the only factors associated with the degree to which participants indicated they had control over needed services, resources, and supports. Implications for improving family-centered practices are described.