Context Of Appraisal Research Articles

Appraisal – The impact of increased control on the “state of play” in New Zealand schools

Increased control has been linked with increased defensiveness, decreased internal commitment, inconsistent adoption of initiatives, and mixed reception. In New Zealand we have seen an incremental tightening of control in the appraisal (evaluation) context with progressively enhanced requirements for accountability in the post‐reform (post‐1989) period in schools. Reports on the context of this tightening of accountability, or increased control, and presents evidence to demonstrate its impact. The evidence was provided via the results of a four‐year (1996‐1999) longitudinal questionnaire study from the period prior to the introduction of the 1996 Draft National Guidelines for Performance Management in Schools (DNGPMS), through to that of prescribed performance criteria (professional standards) for teachers and managers in schools in 1998 and 1999. The results contradict the predicted negative impacts and provide evidence that by 1999 there was a developing positive impact from the tightening of accountability in appraisal. The conclusion discusses recent threats to the positive gains reported in this study.

Inflation of subordinates' performance ratings: main and interactive effects of rater negative affectivity, documentation of work behavior, and appraisal visibility

We hypothesized that raters' tendency to deliberately inflate performance appraisal ratings of subordinates would be associated with rater negative affectivity (NA) and two characteristics of the performance appraisal context: documentation of subordinates' work behaviors and appraisal visibility. We further hypothesized interactions among these variables, such that high-NA, but not low-NA raters, would be more likely to inflate ratings under conditions of low documentation and high appraisal visibility. Moreover, we predicted that NA would be associated most strongly with rating inflation when documentation was low and appraisal visibility was high, simultaneously. Results from a sample of 148 supervisors from a variety of organizations supported these hypotheses. We discuss several practical implications of the results and suggest areas for future inquiry. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Inflation of subordinates' performance ratings: main and interactive effects of rater negative affectivity, documentation of work behavior, and appraisal visibility

We hypothesized that raters' tendency to deliberately inflate performance appraisal ratings of subordinates would be associated with rater negative affectivity (NA) and two characteristics of the performance appraisal context: documentation of subordinates' work behaviors and appraisal visibility. We further hypothesized interactions among these variables, such that high-NA, but not low-NA raters, would be more likely to inflate ratings under conditions of low documentation and high appraisal visibility. Moreover, we predicted that NA would be associated most strongly with rating inflation when documentation was low and appraisal visibility was high, simultaneously. Results from a sample of 148 supervisors from a variety of organizations supported these hypotheses. We discuss several practical implications of the results and suggest areas for future inquiry. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Adaptation after treatment for heart disease: Preliminary examination within a stress appraisal context

Objective: To examine, within a stress appraisal framework, intrapersonal psychosocial factors that may affect adaptation after treatment for heart disease. Hostility was examined as a variable that may affect cognitive appraisal of stress and, thus, adaptation. Design: Quasi-experimental design with measures before and after treatment. Setting: Large, Midwest hospital preadmitting department with follow-up by mail 1 month after treatment. Outcome Measure: Adaptation, operationalized as perceived quality of life. Results: There was a significant, positive relation between hostility and cognitive appraisal of heart disease threat. Threat appraisal and state anxiety before treatment were significantly inversely related to posttreatment quality of life. Hostility was modestly, although nonsignificantly inversely related to posttreatment quality of life. Results provide tentative support for the theory-defined role of appraisal as a mediator between hostility and quality of life. Conclusions: Stress appraisal theory is tentatively supported as a useful framework for examining the adaptational outcome of quality of life in patients with heart disease. (Heart Lung® 1999;28:186-94)

The acceptability of 360 degree appraisals: A customer-supplier relationship perspective

This article argues that “acceptability” is a key issue relevant to the success of 360 degree appraisal processes. They present conceptual arguments to show how a customer-supplier relationship (CSR) perspective provides a useful means of depicting possible 360 degree linkages, as well as discussing the types of raters and ratees for whom acceptance of the process is important. A categorization scheme then provides the primary factors relevant to acceptance of the process. These factors include: (1) organizational characteristics and (2) CSR characteristics and appraisal context. Comparisons are made between customers and suppliers in terms of their probable acceptance of 360 degree appraisals.1 © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Fuzziness, incompleteness and randomness; classification of uncertainty in reservoir appraisal

The rapid progress in computer technology in recent years has enabled the development of increasingly complex simulators, which can handle large amounts of data. It is often assumed that this automatically leads to more accurate static and dynamic reservoir models. In reality, however, there is still much evidence that the predicted performance of a reservoir often differs vastly from the actual production behaviour. These deviations are an indication of the failure to understand the processes involved and to recognize the uncertainty inherent in the definition of important reservoir characteristics. In this paper, a classification scheme is proposed, in which uncertainty is expressed as fuzziness, incompleteness and randomness. Each of these elements is described in detail and illustrated within the context of reservoir appraisal, although the approach can be applied to the wider aspects of petroleum geoscience. It is believed that adopting this classification scheme will enable the geoscientist to build a more extensive picture of uncertainty in reservoir appraisal. It will also be invaluable as a tool with which to inform management of the existing uncertainty, using a consistent language, thus providing guidance in the decision-making process.

Predictors of Employee Preferences for Multirater and Group-Based Performance Appraisal

This study conceptualizes and measures user preferences for 360-degree appraisals and group-level performance management (PM). Users are defined as either recipients of PM processes or those whose job it is to administer the process. Aspects of individual users, their work design, and current appraisal context were used to predict preferences. Two studies were conducted involving data collection in a large Canadian telecommunications conglomerate and a department of the Canadian government, respectively. Predictors explained significant amounts of variance in user preferences, especially those pertaining to group-level PM. Practical implications are suggested with regard to collecting and using user preferences. In addition, suggestions for future research are offered concerning the need to examine a broad range of users in different organizational settings and to measure actual system design features and their effectiveness.

Wife Caregivers of Frail Elderly Veterans: Correlates of Caregiver Satisfaction and Caregiver Strain

This study investigated correlates of satisfaction and strain in 80 wife caregivers of frail elderly veterans. The study focused on the background and context of stress, stressors, and cognitive appraisal of self-efficacy and social/institutional support. Support from spouse was the strongest positive predictor of satisfaction with caregiving and the strongest negative predictor of caregiver strain. Confidence in ability to manage caregiving tasks (self-efficacy) was the strongest positive predictor of caregiver life satisfaction. During the next two decades, older veterans will represent a large and growing proportion of all males aged 65 and older. Two out of three of all males aged 65 and older will be eligible for Department of Veterans Affairs medical care by the year 2000 (Weiler, 1988). The population served by Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Centers (VAMCs), the largest multihospital system in the United States, is likely to be older, of lower than average income, and in need of more care and supportive services than the general population (Department of Veteran Affairs, 1992; Weiler, 1988; Wilson, Moore, Rubin, & Bartels, 1990). Yet, relatively little research has focused on the caregivers of frail elderly veterans and hardly any has focused on wife caregivers (Toseland, Labrecque, Goebel, & Whitney, 1992), who are the most frequent providers of care (Horowitz, 1985; Soldo & Myllyluoma, 1983; Stoller & Earl, 1983). Wives caring for chronically ill or disabled husbands are at particular risk for physical, emotional, and financial strain. Caregiving wives live in the same household as the care receiver, tend to be older and in poorer health than their noncaregiving counterparts, and generally do not have a child living at home to help (Cantor, 1983; George & Gwyther, 1986; Hoyert & Seltzer, 1992; Noelker & Wallace, 1985). Caregiving wives have been identified as that group of caregivers who are most burdened by the rigors of providing care (Hoyert & Seltzer, 1992; Noelker & Wallace, 1985; Pruchno & Resch, 1989; Toseland et al., 1992). Wives caring for frail elderly veterans may be particularly burdened by providing care because functionally disabled elderly veterans receive less community-based long-term care services than does the rest of the elderly population; furthermore, only a small minority of those veterans receives any paid home care (Department of Veterans Affairs, 1992). The situation and experiences of wives caring for frail elderly veterans may, therefore, be different from those of other wife caregivers and, thus, merit empirical investigation. In making recommendations for setting the agenda for the White House Conference on Aging, Pillemer, Moen, Krout, and Robison (1995) noted the importance of considering the needs of specific subpopulations of the elderly, including veterans. Less attention has been given in the literature to the satisfactions of caregiving than to the strains of caregiving. Some of the literature has suggested that caregivers may experience satisfactions or rewards in providing care (Farran, Keane-Hagerty, Salloway, Kupferer, & Wilken, 1991; Given & Given, 1990; Horowitz, 1985; Kramer, 1993). Personal satisfaction may be derived from providing help to an ill or disabled spouse, from meeting the challenges of caregiving, or from gaining respect or recognition from others (Brody, 1985; Chenoweth & Spencer, 1986; Gatz, Bengston, & Blum, 1990; Motenko, 1989). The purpose of the present study was to investigate factors related to satisfaction and strain in wife caregivers of frail elderly veterans. No previous research has investigated correlates of both satisfaction and strain among wives caring for frail elderly veterans in the same study. By examining satisfaction and strain, the present study was able to assess positive as well as negative outcomes of the caregiving experience. In this study, satisfaction was conceptualized as a subjective sense of well-being (Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1976) and strain as a perception of enduring problems that are a threat to one's wellbeing (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978; Robinson, 1983). …

Procedural Justice in Performance Evaluation: The Role of Instrumental and Non-Instrumental Voice in Performance Appraisal Discussions

This study examined the role of subordinate voice in creating positive attitudes in the performance appraisal context. Two aspects of voice, instrumental and non-instrumental, were assessed. Both aspects of voice were related to satisfaction with the appraisal, while only non-instrumental voice had an impact on attitudes toward the manager. Implications for procedural justice and performance appraisal are discussed.

Perceptual Effects of Participative, Goal-Oriented Performance Appraisal: A Field Study in Public Agencies

A participatory, goal-oriented performance appraisal (PGPA) program was implemented in six departments of a state government. In a departure from the standard but questionable practice in the field, we examined the perceptual, rather than attitudinal or behavioral, impact of the program. We found that public employee perceptions were not responsive to PGPA. Consistent with the social cognition perspective of the article, the results suggest that perceptual effectiveness of a performance appraisal program should be established before its attitudinal or behavioral impact is examined. The results also underscore the difficulties of moving participatory, goal-oriented programs from laboratory settings to the field. Performance appraisal has been the subject of considerable research for many years. Performance appraisal serves the two major functions of evaluation and development (Meyer, Kay, and French 1965; Cummings and Schwab 1978; Wexley 1979). As evaluators, managers assess the performance of their employees for the purpose of determining pay increases, promotions, transfers, termination, and other employment-related decisions. The developmental function of performance appraisals focuses on providing feedback for the purpose of counseling and developing productive employees. Deficiencies of the traditional, traits-based performance appraisal have long been recognized (Haynes 1978; Reinhart 1985). In response to the failure of the traditional approaches, participative, goal-oriented performance appraisal alternatives have been recommended (Brown 1987; Edwards 1983; McConkie 1979). A rich literature examines employee responsiveness to participation in decision making and to goal setting (Casio 1987; An earlier version of this article was presented at the 1991 meeting of the Academy of Management, Miami Beach. J-PART, 5(1995):3:331-343 33 1IJournal of Public Administration Research and Theory This content downloaded from 157.55.39.157 on Mon, 01 Aug 2016 04:03:51 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Perceptual Effects of Performance Appraisal Chang and Lorenzi 1983; Earley and Kanfer 1985; Erez, Earley, and Hulin 1985; Erez 1986; Herrick 1990; Larson 1984; Latham and Steele 1983; Locke and Schweiger 1979; Pritchard, Roth, and Jones 1988; Wagner 1994; and Wooten 1981). Very little of that literature, however, is in the context of performance appraisal. In addition to fulfilling its developmental and evaluative functions, we do not know if participative, goal-oriented performance appraisal (PGPA) generates positive employee responses. The purpose of our study is to examine the impact of a particular PGPA program in public agencies. The literature has been almost exclusively concerned with the impact of performance appraisal on employee attitudes and behavior (Wagner 1994). The implicit assumption is that external stimuli such as performance appraisal are linked directly to employee attitudes (e.g., satisfaction) and behaviors (e.g., performance). Exhibit 1A presents the operative model of this popular line of research. Yet, there is growing evidence of an intermediate, cognitive linkage between external stimuli and employee responses (Moussavi and Evans 1993), shown in exhibit 1B. As Daft and Weick (1984) argue, response is contingent upon interpretation. From a social cognition perspective, the individual's interpretation or perception of the external stimuli shapes his/her attitudinal responses (Ilgen and Knowlton 1983) as well as behavioral responses (Thomas and McDaniel 1991). Within the performance appraisal context, therefore, a revised stimuli-response model emerges (see exhibit 1C). We contend that in order to understand the impact of performance appraisal on such response variables as satisfaction or performance one first must examine the intermediate linkage between performance appraisal and employee interpretation. Our interest here goes beyond performance appraisal in general. We are interested specifically in participative, goal oriented performance appraisal. Our intent is to examine the impact of such programs in public agencies. In line with our social cognition foundation, laid out in exhibit 1C, we examine the appraisal-interpretation relationship. Sufficient evidence, both conceptual (Daft and Weick 1984; Moussavi and Evans 1993) and empirical (Ilgen and Knowlton 1983; Thomas and McDaniel 1991), suggests that questions about the effectiveness a performance appraisal program has on employee responses should be asked only after a significant linkage has been established between the features of such a program and the employees' interpretations of their work environment. 3321J-PART, July 1995 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.157 on Mon, 01 Aug 2016 04:03:51 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Perceptual Effects of Performance Appraisal Exhibit 1 Stimuli-Response Linkage A. THE OPERATIVE PERFORMANCE APPRAiSAL MODEL Performance Employee appraisal ~attitudes and behavior B. GENERAL SOCIAL COGNITION MODEL tEximlal Interpretation Response C. THE REViSED PERFORMANCE APPRAiSAL MODEL External Interpretation Response Stimuli Performance Employee Employee appraisal perceptions attitudes intervention (satisfaction) and behavior

Procedural justice in performance evaluation: the role of instrumental and non-instrumental voice in performance appraisal discussions

This study examined the role of subordinate voice in creating positive attitudes in the performance appraisal context. Two aspects of voice, instrumental and non-instrumental, were assessed. Both aspects of voice were related to satisfaction with the appraisal, while only non-instrumental voice had an impact on attitudes toward the manager. Implications for procedural justice and performance appraisal are discussed.

Rater Motivation in the Performance Appraisal Context: A Theoretical Framework

Although researchers have indicated the potential importance of rater motivation for understanding and improving performance appraisal processes, little empirical research or conceptual writing has addressed this topic. The purpose of this paper is to offer a model of the antecedents and outcomes of appraiser motivation, and suggest hypotheses for research. Researchers are encouraged to conduct further research on this important issue.

Rater motivation in the performance appraisal context: A theoretical framework

Although researchers have indicated the potential importance of rater motivation for understanding and improving performance appraisal processes, little empirical research or conceptual writing has addressed this topic. The purpose of this paper is to offer a model of the antecedents and outcomes of appraiser motivation, and suggest hypotheses for research. Researchers are encouraged to conduct further research on this important issue.

Effects of talking about a stressful event on arousal: does what we talk about make a difference?

In Study 1, 30 male and 30 female undergraduates viewed an affect-neutral stimulus and a stress-inducing stimulus. Ss then talked about either their emotional reactions to the stressful stimulus (emotion condition), the sequence of events within it (fact condition), or the sequence of events within the neutral stimulus (distraction condition). Emotion-condition Ss were more autonomically aroused during a 2nd exposure to the stressful stimulus than were fact-condition Ss. In Study 2, 48 hr separated Ss' talking about their 1st exposure to the stressful stimulus from their 2nd exposure to it. Emotion-condition Ss had lower levels of autonomic arousal while viewing the stimulus again and reported more positive affect after watching it than did fact-condition Ss. These results are discussed in the context of cognitive appraisal, perceptual-motor, and self-disclosure views of emotion.

Quality control in geography courses: the role and practice of her majesty's inspectors in British higher education

Abstract How should departments of geography be assessed, who should do the assessment and what should be the aims of that assessment? These questions are of mounting urgency in Britain where the external assessment of geography courses is an increasingly insistent feature of higher education. This contribution to the debate is divided into four parts. It establishes the context of external appraisal and the potentially‐expanding role of HMIs, offers a personal account of the practice adopted by HMIs, sets out a series of comments from HMI reports following the inspection of the teaching of geography in a number of institutions of higher education and details the criteria by which teaching is judged.

Building up the longer-term context for project and program appraisal: dynamic strategic analysis

Long-term planning in too many organizations is flawed by being too rooted in the present and recent past: too little attention is paid to possible major changes in the future economic, technical, etc environments. Thus both the main strategic plan, and any contingency plans, can be sunk by the unexpected. This article outlines a strategic planning procedure which encourages a range of future possibilities to go on die agenda. Future scenarios are developed in conjunction with simple mathematical models (cross-impact models). The steps are repeated to build up an idea of what factors, policies and events most need monitoring and managerial thought. The result should be a strategy—and thus a context for individual projects, programs and activities—which is more robust against future shocks.

TOWARD NARROWING THE RESEARCH‐PRACTICE GAP IN PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Recently, performance appraisal researchers have adopted a cognitive approach to analyzing judgment processes in performance appraisal. While this approach allows researchers to tap a wealth of knowledge applicable to the appraisal context, this line of research is likely to widen the already existing gap between research and practice. We argue that coordination of the talents of researchers and practitioners is essential for narrowing the gap. Specifically, we suggest researchers focus their research on the best methods of ensuring use of relevant and valid data in appraisal, given organizational constraints. We also suggest practitioners focus on determining observable and measurable aspects of performance, and thus, specify appropriate appraisal content. We also note that cognitive process research has promise for increasing raters' ability to judge accurately, but that this approach does not necessarily address the rater's willingness to provide accurate ratings.

Invention and Induction Laudan, Simon and The Logic of Discovery

Although on opposite sides of the logic of discovery debate, Laudan and Simon share a thesis of divorce between discovery (invention) and justification (appraisal); but unlike some other authors, they do not base their respective versions of the divorce-thesis on the empirical/logical distinction. Laudan argues that, in contemporary science, invention is irrelevant to appraisal, and that this irrelevance renders epistemically pointless the inventionist program. Simon uses his divorce-thesis to defend his account of invention, which he claims to be non-inductive—so evading the problem of induction. Underlying both authors' positions are inadequate conceptions of inductive inference. Laudan here ignores the role in contemporary science of plausibility arguments, which provide a crucial link between invention and appraisal, and thence an epistemic rationale for inventionism. Simon's account of invention does covertly call upon inductive principles from the context of appraisal, and this is what gives his program epistemic import; otherwise he would be vulnerable to Laudan's “no rationale” critique. The tensions in both authors reveal the falsity of the divorce-thesis, and the essential function of induction in both appraisal and invention of hypotheses.