Applications In Frequency Metrology Research Articles

Dual optical frequency transfer through wavelength-division and polarization multiplexing in an 184-meter fiber link

Stabilized dual optical frequency transfer is demonstrated through wavelength-division or polarization multiplexing in a 184-meter long polarization-maintaining fiber link. The latter is stabilized at a primary frequency in the telecom C-band using the established Doppler cancellation technique. Simultaneously, a secondary optical frequency is transferred in the same fiber. Out-of-loop characterization demonstrates an indirect Doppler cancellation for the secondary optical frequency. Compared to an unstabilized link, at 1000 seconds integration time we measure an 11.5 dB stability improvement for wavelength-division multiplexing and a 16 dB improvement for polarization multiplexing. Taking advantage of a stabilized link to distribute other wavelengths is useful for applications in frequency metrology. As an example, we are using a cavity-stabilized 1560 nm laser to stabilize the fiber link while a 1556.2 nm two-photon rubidium clock laser is being distributed.

Absolute frequency measurement of molecular iodine hyperfine transitions at 554 nm and its application to stabilize a 369 nm laser for [formula omitted] ions cooling

We investigate 13 hyperfine structures of transition lines of 127I2 near 554 nm, namely, the R(50) 22-0, P(46) 22-0, P(121) 24-0, P(69) 25-1, R(146) 25-0, R(147) 28-1, P(160) 26-0, P(102) 26-1, R(96) 23-0, R(49) 22-0, P(45) 22-0, P(92) 23-0, and R(72) 25-1 transitions, and measure their absolute frequencies with an optical frequency comb. A 369 nm frequency-tripled laser is frequency stabilized by locking the 554 nm harmonic-frequency laser to the R(146) 25-0 a15 line of 127I2 via modulation transfer spectroscopy. A frequency stability of 5×10−12 is observed over a 1000 s integration time. The measurement of the molecular iodine spectroscopy at 554 nm enriches high-precision experimental data, and also enables theoretical predictions. Meanwhile, the 369 nm frequency-tripled laser stabilized by molecular iodine spectroscopy has wide applications in frequency metrology, and quantum information processing based on Yb+ ions.

Photorefraction‐Assisted Self‐Emergence of Dissipative Kerr Solitons

AbstractGenerated in high‐Q optical microresonators, dissipative Kerr soliton microcombs constitute broadband optical frequency combs with chip sizes and repetition rates in the microwave to millimeter‐wave range. For frequency metrology applications such as spectroscopy, optical atomic clocks, and frequency synthesizers, octave‐spanning soliton microcombs generated in dispersion‐optimized microresonators are required, which allow self‐referencing for full frequency stabilization. In addition, field‐deployable applications require the generation of such soliton microcombs to be simple, deterministic, and reproducible. Here, a novel scheme to generate self‐emerging solitons in integrated lithium‐niobate microresonators is demonstrated. The single soliton features a broadband spectral bandwidth with dual dispersive waves, allowing 2f–3f self‐referencing. Via harnessing the photorefractive effect of lithium niobate to significantly extend the soliton existence range, a spontaneous yet deterministic single‐soliton formation is observed. The soliton is immune to external perturbation and can operate continuously for over 13 h without active feedback control. Finally, via integration with a pre‐programmed distributed feedback (DFB) laser, turnkey soliton generation is demonstrated. With further improvement of microresonator Q and hybrid integration with chip‐scale laser chips, compact soliton microcomb devices with electronic actuation can be created, which can become central elements for future LiDAR, microwave photonics, and optical telecommunications.

Birefringent, low loss, and broadband semi-tube anti-resonant hollow-core fiber.

We report on the design, fabrication, and characterization of a low-loss birefringent semi-tube anti-resonant hollow-core fiber (AR-HCF). By optimizing the structure design and the stack-and-draw fabrication technique, a transmission loss of 4.8 dB/km at 1522 nm, a <10dB/km bandwidth of 154 nm, and a phase birefringence of 1.8 × 10-5 are demonstrated. This achieved loss is more than one order of magnitude lower than the previously reported birefringent AR-HCF and the bandwidth is one order of magnitude broader than the reported birefringent photonic bandgap hollow-core fiber (PBG-HCF) with the same loss level. The polarization extinction ratio (PER) reaches the ∼20 dB level in a 90m-long fiber under >25cm bending radius. Combined with the single mode and low dispersion features, the developed semi-tube AR-HCF may find a variety of applications in frequency metrology, interferometric fiber gyroscopes, and long-baseline stellar interferometry.

Towards integrated photonic interposers for processing octave-spanning microresonator frequency combs

Microcombs—optical frequency combs generated in microresonators—have advanced tremendously in the past decade, and are advantageous for applications in frequency metrology, navigation, spectroscopy, telecommunications, and microwave photonics. Crucially, microcombs promise fully integrated miniaturized optical systems with unprecedented reductions in cost, size, weight, and power. However, the use of bulk free-space and fiber-optic components to process microcombs has restricted form factors to the table-top. Taking microcomb-based optical frequency synthesis around 1550 nm as our target application, here, we address this challenge by proposing an integrated photonics interposer architecture to replace discrete components by collecting, routing, and interfacing octave-wide microcomb-based optical signals between photonic chiplets and heterogeneously integrated devices. Experimentally, we confirm the requisite performance of the individual passive elements of the proposed interposer—octave-wide dichroics, multimode interferometers, and tunable ring filters, and implement the octave-spanning spectral filtering of a microcomb, central to the interposer, using silicon nitride photonics. Moreover, we show that the thick silicon nitride needed for bright dissipative Kerr soliton generation can be integrated with the comparatively thin silicon nitride interposer layer through octave-bandwidth adiabatic evanescent coupling, indicating a path towards future system-level consolidation. Finally, we numerically confirm the feasibility of operating the proposed interposer synthesizer as a fully assembled system. Our interposer architecture addresses the immediate need for on-chip microcomb processing to successfully miniaturize microcomb systems and can be readily adapted to other metrology-grade applications based on optical atomic clocks and high-precision navigation and spectroscopy.

Broadband mid-infrared supercontinuum generation in dispersion-engineered As2S3-silica nanospike waveguides pumped by 2.8 μm femtosecond laser

Broadband mid-infrared (IR) supercontinuum laser sources are essential for spectroscopy in the molecular fingerprint region. Here, we report generation of octave-spanning and coherent mid-IR supercontinua in As 2 S 3 -silica nanospike hybrid waveguides pumped by a custom-built 2.8 μm femtosecond fiber laser. The waveguides are formed by pressure-assisted melt-filling of molten As 2 S 3 into silica capillaries, allowing the dispersion and nonlinearity to be precisely tailored. Continuous coherent spectra spanning from 1.1 μm to 4.8 μm (30 dB level) are observed when the waveguide is designed so that 2.8 μm lies in the anomalous dispersion regime. Moreover, linearly tapered millimeter-scale As 2 S 3 -silica waveguides are fabricated and investigated for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, showing much broader supercontinua than uniform waveguides, with improved spectral coherence. The waveguides are demonstrated to be long-term stable and water-resistant due to the shielding of the As 2 S 3 by the fused silica sheath. They offer an alternative route to generating broadband mid-IR supercontinua, with applications in frequency metrology and molecular spectroscopy, especially in humid and aqueous environments.

Multiplexing-oriented plasmon-MoS2 hybrid metasurfaces driven by nonlinear quasi bound states in the continuum

Rapid progress in nonlinear plasmonic metasurfaces enabled many novel optical characteristics for metasurfaces, with potential applications in frequency metrology [Zimmermann et al. Opt. Lett. 29:310 (2004)], timing characterization [Singh et al. Laser Photonics Rev. 14:1 (2020)] and quantum information [Kues et al. Nature. 546:622 (2017)]. However, the spectrum of nonlinear optical response was typically determined from the linear optical resonance. In this work, a wavelength-multiplexed nonlinear plasmon-MoS2 hybrid metasurface with suppression phenomenon was proposed, where multiple nonlinear signals could to be simultaneously processed and optionally tuned. A clear physical picture to depict the nonlinear plasmonic bound states in the continuum (BICs) was presented, from the perspective of both classical and quantum approaches. Particularly, beyond the ordinary plasmon-polariton effect, we numerically demonstrated a giant BIC-inspired second-order nonlinear susceptibility 10-5m/V of MoS2 in the infrared band. The novelty in our study lies in the presence of a quantum oscillator that can be adopted to both suppress and enhance the nonlinear quasi BICs. This selectable nonlinear BIC-based suppression and enhancement effect can optionally block undesired modes, resulting in narrower linewidth as well as smaller quantum decay rates, which is also promising in slow-light-associated technologies.

Pulse-repetition-rate tuning of a harmonically mode-locked fiber laser using a tapered photonic crystal fiber.

Strong enhancement of optoacoustic interactions in the micrometer-sized core of a photonic crystal fiber (PCF) enables stable, harmonic mode locking of a soliton fiber laser at GHz frequencies. Here we report that by tapering the PCF during the draw, the optoacoustic gain bandwidth can be broadened to ∼47 MHz, more than 3 times wider than in the untapered fiber. This made possible broad pulse-repetition-rate tuning over 66MHz (from 2.042 to 2.108GHz) of an optoacoustically mode-locked soliton fiber laser. Within this tuning range, the harmonically mode-locked pulse trains at the laser output were observed to be quite robust, with better than 40dB supermode suppression ratio, sub-ps pulse timing jitter, and <0.2%relative intensity noise. This gigahertz-rate, near-infrared soliton fiber laser has remarkable pulse-rate tunability and low noise level, and has important potential applications in frequency metrology, high-speed optical sampling, and fiber telecommunications.

Sub-milliwatt-level microresonator solitons with extended access range using an auxiliary laser

The recent demonstration of dissipative Kerr solitons in microresonators has opened a new pathway for the generation of ultrashort pulses and low-noise frequency combs with gigahertz to terahertz repetition rates, enabling applications in frequency metrology, astronomy, optical coherent communications, and laser-based ranging. A main challenge for soliton generation, in particular in ultra-high-Q resonators, is the sudden change of circulating intracavity power during the onset of soliton generation. This sudden power change requires precise control of the seed laser frequency and power or fast control of the resonator temperature. Here, we report a robust and simple way to increase the stability range of the soliton regime by using an auxiliary laser that passively stabilizes the intracavity power. In our experiments with fused silica resonators, we are able to extend the pump laser frequency stability range of microresonator solitons by two orders of magnitude, which enables soliton generation by slow and manual tuning of the pump laser into resonance and at unprecedented low power levels. Both single- and multi-soliton mode-locked states are generated in a 1.3-mm-diameter fused silica microrod resonator with a free spectral range of ~50.6 GHz, at a 1554 nm pump wavelength at threshold powers <3 mW. Moreover, with a smaller 230-{\mu}m-diameter microrod, we demonstrate soliton generation at 780 {\mu}W threshold power. The passive enhancement of the stability range of microresonator solitons paves the way for robust and low threshold microcomb systems with substantially relaxed stability requirements for the pump laser source. In addition, this method could be useful in a wider range of microresonator applications that require reduced sensitivity to external perturbations.

Chalcogenide W-type co-axial optical fiber for broadband highly coherent mid-IR supercontinuum generation

A numerical investigation on chalcogenide W-type co-axial optical fiber structures is reported for broadband highly coherent mid-IR supercontinuum generation. The structural parameters of the optical fiber were optimized to achieve small normal dispersion in a broad spectral range of the mid-IR region. The W-type optical fiber structure possesses a flat chromatic dispersion profile with the flatness of the dispersion variation of ±2.45 ps/nm/km within the spectral range of 4.9–12.6 μm. A coherent mid-IR supercontinuum spectrum spanning 2.28 to 15.52 μm at the −40 dB level is obtained using a 4 cm long W-type optical fiber when it pumped by a 200 fs laser pulse with a peak power of 10 kW at 7.0 μm. Broadband coherent mid-infrared supercontinuum sources have potential applications in frequency metrology, nonlinear microscopy, non-destructive testing, optical coherence tomography, and molecular spectroscopy.

Mode-locking Instabilities for High-Gain Semiconductor Disk Lasers Based on Active Submonolayer Quantum Dots

Optically pumped continuous-wave (cw) semiconductor disk lasers (SDLs) have an established commercial impact, and recent progress in ultrashort-pulse operation makes them attractive for applications in frequency metrology. There is, however, a tradeoff between femtosecond pulse lengths and average output power. Quantum-dot (QD) materials could potentially solve this problem---but not just any dots. The authors show that SDLs based on active submonolayer QDs produce record-high cw output power, but without stable mode locking, which is due to fundamental physical reasons.

Photonic-Chip Supercontinuum with Tailored Spectra for Counting Optical Frequencies

Supercontinuum generation using chip-integrated photonic waveguides is a powerful approach for spectrally broadening pulsed laser sources with very low pulse energies and compact form factors. When pumped with a mode-locked laser frequency comb, these waveguides can coherently expand the comb spectrum to more than an octave in bandwidth to enable self-referenced stabilization. However, for applications in frequency metrology and precision spectroscopy, it is desirable to not only support self-referencing, but also to generate low-noise combs with customizable broadband spectra. In this work, we demonstrate dispersion-engineered waveguides based on silicon nitride that are designed to meet these goals and enable precision optical metrology experiments across large wavelength spans. We perform a clock comparison measurement and report a clock-limited relative frequency instability of $3.8\times10^{-15}$ at $\tau = 2$ seconds between a 1550 nm cavity-stabilized reference laser and NIST's calcium atomic clock laser at 657 nm using a two-octave waveguide-supercontinuum comb.

Multicolor cavity soliton.

We show a new class of complex solitary wave that exists in a nonlinear optical cavity with appropriate dispersion characteristics. The cavity soliton consists of multiple soliton-like spectro-temporal components that exhibit distinctive colors but coincide in time and share a common phase, formed together via strong inter-soliton four-wave mixing and Cherenkov radiation. The multicolor cavity soliton shows intriguing spectral locking characteristics and remarkable capability of spectrum management to tailor soliton frequencies, which would be very useful for versatile generation and manipulation of multi-octave spanning phase-locked Kerr frequency combs, with great potential for applications in frequency metrology, optical frequency synthesis, and spectroscopy.

Trade-off between linewidth and slip rate in a mode-locked laser model.

We demonstrate a trade-off between linewidth and loss-of-lock rate in a mode-locked laser employing active feedback to control the carrier-envelope offset phase difference. In frequency metrology applications, the linewidth translates directly to uncertainty in the measured frequency, whereas the impact of lock loss and recovery on the measured frequency is less well understood. We reduce the dynamics to stochastic differential equations, specifically diffusion processes, and compare the linearized linewidth to the rate of lock loss determined by the mean time to exit, as calculated from large deviation theory.

High peak power gigahertz Yb:CALGO laser.

We present a high-power gigahertz SESAM modelocked Yb:CALGO laser with sub-60-fs pulses. The laser delivers an average output power of 2.95 W at a pulse repetition rate of 1.8 GHz in fundamental modelocking without additional pulse compression or amplification. Stable modelocking with a single pulse per cavity round-trip is confirmed and results in an output peak power of 24.3 kW and a pulse energy of 1.64 nJ. The laser is pumped by a commercial multimode diode laser, which improves the reliability and robustness. This high-power gigahertz laser is expected to enable numerous applications in frequency metrology.

Circumvention of noise contributions in fiber laser based frequency combs

We investigate the performance of an Er:fiber laser based femtosecond frequency comb for precision metrological applications. Instead of an active stabilization of the comb, the fluctuations of the carrier-envelope offset phase, the repetition phase, and the phase of the beat from a comb line with an optical reference are synchronously detected. We show that these fluctuations can be effectively eliminated by exploiting their known correlation. In our experimental scheme, we utilize two identically constructed frequency combs for the measurement of the fluctuations, rejecting the influence of a shared optical reference. From measuring a white frequency noise level, we demonstrate that a fractional frequency instability better than 1.4 x 10(-14) for 1 s averaging time can be achieved in frequency metrology applications using the Er:fiber based frequency comb.

New directions in sub-10-fs optical pulse generation

Sub-10-fs pulse generation has reached a maturity and robustness that gave rise to a rapid increase of new ultrafast applications. Some of these novel applications rely on the octave-spanning spectral width, the coherence properties, or the extremely high peak intensity of femtosecond lasers, which sets them apart from the traditional use of femtosecond lasers in ultrafast spectroscopy. In this review, we concentrate on the sub-10-fs regime and first discuss the state of the art in ultrashort pulse generation. We then report on ultrabroadband wavelength conversion schemes and dispersion control by chirped mirrors. We also review advances in pulse characterization methods, with which we can measure pulse properties with much higher accuracy than simple autocorrelation methods and which support even a bandwidth in the single-cycle regime. With the recent demonstrations of pulses with a duration of merely two optical cycles, a regime is entered where the relative phase between the carrier and the envelope of the pulse starts to play a role. We discuss methods to measure and control the carrier–envelope phase and point out applications in frequency metrology. A wealth of further novel directions and developments in femtosecond research is reviewed in this article.

Supercontinuum generation in tapered fibers

Supercontinuum light with a spectrum more than two octaves broad (370-1545 nm at the 20-dB level) was generated in a standard telecommunications fiber by femtosecond pulses from an unamplified Ti:sapphire laser. The fiber had been tapered to a diameter of :2mum over a 90-mm length. The pulse energy was 3.9 nJ (average power, 300 mW). This source of high-intensity single-mode white light should find widespread applications in frequency metrology and spectroscopy, especially since no unconventional fibers are needed.