Application Of Larvicides Research Articles

Identification of larvicide-resistant catch basins from three years of larvicide trials in a suburb of chicago, IL.

The tens of thousands of catch basins found in many urban areas are a primary target of local vector control agencies for seasonal application of extended-release larvicides. A concern with using larvicides in these structures is that active ingredients can be hampered by high flows, debris, and sediment, all of which are common to these structures. As such a certain proportion of basins may be “resistant” to larvicide treatments due to site specific characteristics that may promote these and other factors that hinder larvicide action and/or promote mosquito infestation. Analyses from three years of larvicide efficacy trials suggest that over a quarter of basins in the study area may not be receiving adequate protection from a single dose of larvicide that is routinely applied. Implications of increasing the dose and/or toxicity of larvicide treatments are discussed further.

Atividade Larvicida de <i>Bacillus sphaericus</i> 2362 contra <i>Anopheles</i> sp. (Diptera, Culicidae) em rios do Amazonas, Brasil

Studies addressing vector control are important due to the high incidence of malaria in Amazonia. The present study aims to analyze the larvicidal activity of Bacillus sphaericus 2362 against anophelines in Amazonia. Laboratory assays testing B. sphaericus 2362 as lyophilised in waters collected from anopheline breeding sites in the Solimoes and Negro Rivers, were carried out on Anopheles nuneztovari larvae. A field test using a Bacillus sphaericus 2362 formulation, named Spherico, was applied on Anopheles species in the natural breeding sites in the Solimoes and Negro Rivers. Laboratory bioassay showed that, the B. sphaericus tested dosage are not efficient in the control of A. nuneztovari larvae in black water, with CL50= 0.563ppm, compared to the larvicide dosage found in white water presenting CL50= 0,859 ppm, in the 24 h reading, with a significance of p>0.05. Regression straight lines point out that in the highest B. sphaericus 2362 dosages (1 ppm, 0.5ppm), there was higher mortality rate against this target species in black water, than that found in white water. In the field assays the Anopheles predominant species, both in black and white water breeding sites, were A. triannulatus (74%) and A. albitarsis (22%). The present study showed a decrease in the man hour larval index (MHLI) values following the larvicide application, both, in Solimoes and Negro River breeding sites, as compared to that found prior to the treatment. The Solimoes River breeding site, presented a value of MHLI equal to 72% wherever the highest Spherico formulation (0.2mL/m2) was applied, and MHLI of 18% where the lowest larvicide dosage was applied (0.025mL/m2), both values were found in the 48 h evaluation. In the Negro River, the MHLI was 53 and, 11%, for the highest and lowest Spherico tested dosage. The activity of the B. sphaericus 2362 and Spherico formulation on anopheline larvae differed significantly between the two water types tested (Solimoes and Negro Rivers).

Mosquito Population Regulation and Larval Source Management in Heterogeneous Environments

An important question for mosquito population dynamics, mosquito-borne pathogen transmission and vector control is how mosquito populations are regulated. Here we develop simple models with heterogeneity in egg laying patterns and in the responses of larval populations to crowding in aquatic habitats. We use the models to evaluate how such heterogeneity affects mosquito population regulation and the effects of larval source management (LSM). We revisit the notion of a carrying capacity and show how heterogeneity changes our understanding of density dependence and the outcome of LSM. Crowding in and productivity of aquatic habitats is highly uneven unless egg-laying distributions are fine-tuned to match the distribution of habitats’ carrying capacities. LSM reduces mosquito population density linearly with coverage if adult mosquitoes avoid laying eggs in treated habitats, but quadratically if eggs are laid in treated habitats and the effort is therefore wasted (i.e., treating 50% of habitat reduces mosquito density by approximately 75%). Unsurprisingly, targeting (i.e. treating a subset of the most productive pools) gives much larger reductions for similar coverage, but with poor targeting, increasing coverage could increase adult mosquito population densities if eggs are laid in higher capacity habitats. Our analysis suggests that, in some contexts, LSM models that accounts for heterogeneity in production of adult mosquitoes provide theoretical support for pursuing mosquito-borne disease prevention through strategic and repeated application of modern larvicides.

Comparison Between Diflubenzuron and aBacillus thuringiensis israelensis– andLysinibacillus sphaericus–Based Formulation for the Control of Mosquito Larvae in Urban Catch Basins in Switzerland

A field test was conducted to evaluate a commercial biolarvicide based on Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis and Lysinibacillus sphaericus to control mosquitoes breeding in catch basins in southern Switzerland. The efficacy and residual activity of the microbial mosquito larvicide applied at the recommended rate of 10 g per catch basin was compared to the currently used larvicide diflubenzuron. Both products provided a very good control activity (> 97% of reduction) of late instars (3rd and 4th instars) and pupae for 4 wk. However, only the microbial formulation controlled immature stages during the whole period of the trial, with > 98% of larval reduction. A single application of the microbial larvicide applied at 10 g per catch basin significantly reduced the number of immature mosquitoes for at least 70 days. The quantity of rainfall in the 48-h period before each sampling and the water temperature did not influence the efficacy of the treatments. Under the environmental conditions encountered in southern Switzerland, the larvicide tested may be a valid alternative to diflubenzuron to control mosquitoes in urban catch basins. The long-lasting control by the microbial larvicide further reduces the number of treatments required to keep the population of mosquitoes at low levels.

Incorporating Organophosphate Alternative Insecticides Into Codling Moth Management Programs in Washington Apple Orchards

Azinphos-methyl (AZM) has been the most used insecticide in apple production in the United States since the late 1960s, primarily as a control for the key pest of apple ( Malus domestica Borkh.), codling moth ( Cydia pomonella L.). A decision by the EPA to phase out AZM by 2012 signals the end of this product's use by tree fruit growers. In recent years, many new insecticides have been registered to replace AZM. These new insecticides have unique modes of action, but growers will need to change their traditional management practices to achieve the level of control they were accustomed to with AZM. Field trials were conducted from 2004 to 2008 to explore new application timings and strategies that incorporated insecticides with different modes of action and targeted life stages. It was apparent that new insecticides could not provide fruit protection superior to protection provided with AZM. However, strategies were developed that in many cases allowed equivalent control to the level of control experienced with a codling moth program based on AZM. The most successful strategies employed insecticides that targeted both eggs (ovicides) and larvae (larvicides). An insect growth regulator (ovicide) applied at the start of the oviposition period followed by two larvicide applications that targeted the peak egg hatch period provided fruit protection equivalent to the protection given by AZM applied twice.

Width of planting beds for emergent vegetation influences mosquito production from a constructed wetland in California (USA)

The abundance and distribution of Culex spp. mosquitoes, mosquito-eating fish (Gambusia affinis), and other macroinvertebrates were assessed within wide (width: 20m) and narrow (width: 3m) bands of California bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus) and in the open water adjacent to emergent vegetation in two marshes of an ammonia-dominated wastewater treatment wetland in southern California. Emergence traps and minnow traps were used to collect fauna along transects perpendicular to the path of water flow at three distances (1.5, 5 and 10m) from the vegetation–open water interface in the wide bands of emergent vegetation, at the center of narrow bands of emergent vegetation and at 1.5m from the edge of emergent vegetation in the open water. Mosquito production was least from the open water sites and, relative to sites within the wide band of vegetation in each of the two marshes studied, was significantly lower from the narrow bands of emergent vegetation where mosquitofish populations increased comparatively more during the summer and nektonic predatory insects (Notonectidae) were more abundant. Adult mosquito production was greatest at the middle of wide bands of bulrush. Despite an ongoing integrated mosquito management (IMM) program that included routine application of larvicides and adulticides, Culex mosquitoes emerged in large numbers (>200 individuals/m2/day) along transects within the interiors of wide bands of emergent vegetation in the late spring and summer. The width of bands of emergent vegetation in constructed treatment wetlands should be minimized to the greatest extent possible to achieve water quality goals yet to facilitate both ecological and, when necessary, chemical control of mosquitoes.

Experimental comparison of aerial larvicides and habitat modification for controlling disease‐carrying Aedes vigilax mosquitoes

Microbial and insect-growth-regulator larvicides dominate current vector control programmes because they reduce larval abundance and are relatively environmentally benign. However, their short persistence makes them expensive, and environmental manipulation of larval habitat might be an alternative control measure. Aedes vigilax is a major vector species in northern Australia. A field experiment was implemented in Darwin, Australia, to test the hypotheses that (1) aerial microbial larvicide application effectively decreases Ae. vigilax larval presence, and therefore adult emergence, and (2) environmental manipulation is an effective alternative control measure. Generalised linear and mixed-effects modelling and information-theoretic comparisons were used to test these hypotheses. It is shown that the current aerial larvicide application campaign is effective at suppressing the emergence of Ae. vigilax, whereas vegetation removal is not as effective in this context. In addition, the results indicate that current larval sampling procedures are inadequate for quantifying larval abundance or adult emergence. This field-based comparison has shown that the existing larviciding campaign is more effective than a simple environmental management strategy for mosquito control. It has also identified an important knowledge gap in the use of larval sampling to evaluate the effectiveness of vector control strategies.

Comparison of Morning and Evening Larvicide Applications on Black Fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) Mortality

The downstream movement, or drift, of larval black flies as well as many other aquatic insects has been well documented. This phenomenon has most often been associated with the dusk-to-overnight time frame. Operationally, larvicide applications targeting black flies are typically initiated early in the day and can extend until near sunset. To determine if larvicide applications conducted late in the day would be affected by the drift behavior of larval black flies, 6 larvicide applications were conducted. Three applications were conducted at midmorning and 3 during the evening. Larvicidal applications of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis insecticidal proteins targeting Simulium appalachiense demonstrated no difference in larval mortality between morning and evening applications. These findings indicate that the larvae responded in a similar manner to the larvicide during the late morning to early afternoon and evening to night. The drift behavior of larval black flies does not appear to be an impediment to black fly suppression activities.

Biolarvicidal compound gymnemagenol isolated from leaf extract of miracle fruit plant, Gymnema sylvestre (Retz) Schult against malaria and filariasis vectors

Owing to the fact that the application of synthetic larvicide has envenomed the surroundings as well as non-target organisms, natural products of plant origin with insecticidal properties have been tried as an indigenous method for the control of a variety of insect pests and vectors in the recent past. Insecticides of plant origin have been extensively used on agricultural pests and, to a very limited extent, against insect vectors of public health importance, which deserve careful and thorough screening. The use of plant extracts for insect control has several appealing features as these are generally more biodegradable, less hazardous and a rich storehouse of chemicals of diverse biological activities. Moreover, herbal sources give a lead for discovering new insecticides. Therefore, biologically active plant materials have attracted considerable interest in mosquito control study in recent times. The crude leaf extracts of Gymnema sylvestre (Retz) Schult (Asclepiadaceae) and purified gymnemagenol compound were studied against the early fourth-instar larvae of Anopheles subpictus Grassi and Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). In the present study, bioassay-guided fractionation of petroleum ether leaf extract of G. sylvestre led to the separation and identification of gymnemagenol as a potential new antiparasitic compound. Phytochemical analysis of G. sylvestre leaves revealed the presence of active constituents such as carbohydrates, saponins, phytosterols, phenols, flavonoids and tannins. However, cardiac glycosides and phlobatannins are absent in the plant extracts. Quantitative analysis results suggested that saponin (5%) was present in a high concentration followed by tannins (1.0%). The 50 g powder was loaded on silica gel column and eluted with chloroform-methanol-water as eluents. From that, 16 mg pure saponin compound was isolated and analysed by thin layer chromatography using chloroform and methanol as the solvent systems. The structure of the purified triterpenoid fraction was established from infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), (13)C NMR and mass spectral data. The carbon skeleton of the compound was obtained by (13)C NMR spectroscopy. The chemical shift assignments obtained for gymnemagenol from (1)H NMR correspond to the molecular formula C(30)H(50)O(4). The compound was identified as 3β, 16β, 28, 29-tetrahydroxyolean-12-ene (gymnemagenol sapogenin). Parasite larvae were exposed to varying concentrations of purified compound gymnemagenol for 24 h. The results suggested that the larval mortality effects of the compound were 28%, 69%, 100% and 31%, 63%, 100% at 6, 12 and 24 h against A. subpictus and C. quinquefasciatus, respectively. In the present study, the per cent mortality were 100, 86, 67, 36, 21 and 100, 78, 59, 38 and 19 observed in the concentrations of 1,000, 500, 250, 125 and 62.75 ppm against the fourth-instar larvae of A. subpitcus and C. quinquefasciatus, respectively. The purified compound gymnemagenol was tested in concentrations of 80, 40, 20, 10 and 5 ppm, and the per cent mortality were 100, 72, 53, 30 and 15 against A. subpitcus and 100, 89, 61, 42 and 30 against C. quinquefasciatus, respectively. The larvicidal crude leaf extract of G. sylvestre showed the highest mortality in the concentration of 1,000 ppm against the larvae of A. subpictus (LC(50) = 166.28 ppm, r (2) = 0.807) and against the larvae of C. quinquefasciatus (LC(50) = 186.55 ppm, r (2) = 0.884), respectively. The maximum efficacy was observed in gymnemagenol compound with LC(50) and r (2) values against the larvae of A. subpictus (22.99 ppm, 0.922) and against C. quinquefasciatus (15.92 ppm, 0.854), respectively. The control (distilled water) showed nil mortality in the concurrent assay.

Oviposition Site Selection by the Dengue Vector Aedes aegypti and Its Implications for Dengue Control

BackgroundBecause no dengue vaccine or antiviral therapy is commercially available, controlling the primary mosquito vector, Aedes aegypti, is currently the only means to prevent dengue outbreaks. Traditional models of Ae. aegypti assume that population dynamics are regulated by density-dependent larval competition for food and little affected by oviposition behavior. Due to direct impacts on offspring survival and development, however, mosquito choice in oviposition site can have important consequences for population regulation that should be taken into account when designing vector control programs.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe examined oviposition patterns by Ae. aegypti among 591 naturally occurring containers and a set of experimental containers in Iquitos, Peru. Using larval starvation bioassays as an indirect measure of container food content, we assessed whether females select containers with the most food for their offspring. Our data indicate that choice of egg-laying site is influenced by conspecific larvae and pupae, container fill method, container size, lid, and sun exposure. Although larval food positively influenced oviposition, our results did not support the hypothesis that females act primarily to maximize food for larvae. Females were most strongly attracted to sites containing immature conspecifics, even when potential competitors for their progeny were present in abundance.Conclusion/SignificanceDue to strong conspecific attraction, egg-laying behavior may contribute more to regulating Ae. aegypti populations than previously thought. If highly infested containers are targeted for removal or larvicide application, females that would have preferentially oviposited in those sites may instead distribute their eggs among other suitable, previously unoccupied containers. Strategies that kill mosquitoes late in their development (i.e., insect growth regulators that kill pupae rather than larvae) will enhance vector control by creating “egg sinks,” treated sites that exploit conspecific attraction of ovipositing females, but reduce emergence of adult mosquitoes via density-dependent larval competition and late acting insecticide.

Costo-efectividad de prácticas en salud pública: revisión bibliográfica de las intervenciones de la Iniciativa Mesoamericana de Salud

Present and analyze cost-effectiveness information of public health interventions proposed by the Mesoamerican Health Initiative in child nutrition, vaccination, malaria, dengue, and maternal, neonatal, and reproductive health. A systematic literature review was conducted on cost-effectiveness studies published between January 2000 and August 2009 on interventions related to the health areas previously mentioned. Studies were included if they measured effectiveness in terms of Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) or death averted. Child nutrition and maternal and neonatal health interventions were found to be highly cost-effective (most of them below US$200 per DALY averted for nutritional interventions and US$100 for maternal and neonatal health). For dengue, information on cost-effectiveness was found just for application of larvicides, which resulted in a cost per DALY averted ranking from US$40.79 to US$345.06. Malarial interventions were found to be cost-effective (below US$150 per DALY averted or US$4,000 per death averted within Africa). In the case of pneumococcus and rotavirus vaccination, cost-effectiveness estimates were always above one GDP per capita per DALY averted. In Mesoamerica there are still important challenges in child nutrition, vaccination, malaria, dengue and maternal, neonatal, and reproductive health, challenges that could be addressed by scaling-up technically feasible and cost-effective interventions.

Effect of repeated application of microbial larvicides on malaria transmission in central Côte d’Ivoire

Effect of repeated application of microbial larvicides on malaria transmission in central Côte d’Ivoire

Population-level effects of spinosad and Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis in Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna: comparison of laboratory and field microcosm exposure conditions

Because exposure to toxicants not only results in mortality but also in multiple sublethal effects, the use of life-table data appears particularly suitable to assess global effects on exposed populations. The present study uses a life table response approach to assess population-level effects of two insecticides used against mosquito larvae, spinosad (8 μg/l) and Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti, 0.5 μl/l), on two non target species, Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna (Crustacea: Cladocera), under laboratory versus field microcosms conditions. Population growth rates were inferred from life table data and Leslie matrices under a model with resource limitation (ceiling). These were further used to estimate population risks of extinction under each tested condition, using stochastic simulations. In laboratory conditions, analyses performed for each species confirmed the significant negative effect of spinosad on survival, mean time at death, and fecundity as compared to controls and Bti-treated groups; for both species, population growth rate λ was lower under exposure to spinosad. In field microcosms, 2 days after larvicide application, differences in population growth rates were observed between spinosad exposure conditions, and control and Bti exposure conditions. Simulations performed on spinosad-exposed organisms led to population extinction (minimum abundance = 0, extinction risk = 1), and this was extremely rapid (time to quasi-extinction = 4.1 one-week long steps, i.e. one month). Finally, D. magna was shown to be more sensitive than D. pulex to spinosad in the laboratory, and the effects were also detectable through field population demographic simulations.

The potential of a new larviciding method for the control of malaria vectors

Malaria pathogens are transmitted to humans by the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes. The juvenile stages of these mosquitoes develop in a variety of water bodies and are key targets for vector control campaigns involving the application of larvicides. The effective operational implementation of these campaigns is difficult, time consuming, and expensive. New evidence however, suggests that adult mosquitoes can be co-opted into disseminating larvicides in a far more targeted and efficient manner than can be achieved using conventional methods.

Intersectoral coordination, community empowerment and dengue prevention: six years of controlled interventions in Playa Municipality, Havana, Cuba

To document the process, outcome and effectiveness of a community-based intervention for dengue control. The primary intervention, focused on strengthening intersectoral coordination, was initiated by researchers in January 2000 in a pilot area in Playa municipality, Havana. In August 2002 health authorities extended the intervention to neighbouring areas, one of which was selected for evaluation. In August 2003 a complementary strategy, focused on community empowerment, was initiated in half of the pilot area. In our control area, routine dengue activities continued throughout the study period. Longitudinal process assessment was carried out using document analysis, interviews and group discussions. Random population surveys in 1999, 2002 and 2005 assessed levels of participation and behavioural changes. Entomological surveillance data from 1999 to 2005 were used to determine effectiveness. Mean scores for participation in the pilot area were 1.6, 3.4 and 4.4 at baseline, and 2 years after initiating intersectoral coordination and intersectoral coordination plus community empowerment interventions, respectively. While in the control area little behavioural change was observed over time, changes were considerable in the pilot and extension areas, with 80% of households involved in the community empowerment intervention showed adequate behavioural patterns. The pilot and extension areas attained comparable entomological effectiveness with significantly lower Breteau indices (BIs) than the control area. The pilot (sub-) area with the community empowerment intervention reached BIs below 0.1 that continued to be significantly lower than the one in the control area until the end of the study. The study showed a trend in the levels and quality of participation, behavioural change and effectiveness of Aedes control from the routine activities only over an intervention with intersectoral coordination to one that combined intersectoral coordination and community empowerment approach.

Integrated malaria vector control with microbial larvicides and insecticide-treated nets in western Kenya: a controlled trial

To assess the contributions of both microbial larvicides and insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) in terms of reducing malaria incidence in an integrated vector management programme in an area moderately endemic for malaria in the western Kenyan highlands. A pre-post, control group design was used. Larval and adult vector populations were surveyed weekly in six separate valley communities. The incidence of Plasmodium infections in children 6 months to 13 years of age was measured during the long and short rainy seasons each year. Baseline data were collected for 17 months, after which Bacillus-based larvicides were applied weekly to aquatic habitats in three of the valleys for another 19 months. At around the same time the larviciding was initiated, ITNs were introduced gradually into all study communities by the National Malaria Control Programme. The effect of larviciding, ITNs and other determinants of malaria risk was assessed by means of generalized estimating equations. The risk of acquiring new parasite infections in children was substantially and independently reduced by ITN use (odds ratio, OR: 0.69; 95% confidence interval, CI: 0.48-0.99) and larvicide application (OR: 0.44; 95% CI: 0.23-0.82), after adjusting for confounders. Vector control with microbial larvicides enhanced the malaria control achieved with ITNs alone. Anti-larval measures are a promising complement to ITN distribution in the economically important highland areas and similar transmission settings in Africa.

Effect of Repeated Application of Microbial Larvicides on Malaria Transmission in Central Côte d'Ivoire

The effect of repeated applications of Bacillus thuringiensis var israeliensis (Bti) and B. sphaericus (Bs) on different entomologic parameters of malaria transmission was investigated in a village in central Côte d'Ivoire. The study area was monitored for potential mosquito breeding sites over a 7-month period. Microbial larvicides were applied once every 3 wk; first Bti (0.8 mg/liter), followed by Bs (10 mg/liter) 3-4 days later. Adult mosquitoes were collected inside and outside sentinel houses in 4 cross-sectional surveys using human landing catch. Repeated applications of Bti and Bs showed a decline in the biting rate of both Anopheles funestus and Anopheles gambiae. Moreover, the entomologic inoculation rate of An. funestus was significantly reduced (from 328 to 142, P = 0.005), whereas that of An. gambiae remained stable. In conclusion, microbial larvicides might play a role in an integrated approach for malaria control.

Preliminary examination of integrated vector management in a tropical rainforest area of Cameroon

In the tropical rainforest area of Cameroon, people are affected by blackflies (Simulium spp.) and mosquitoes (Anopheles spp). Use of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) has been promoted to protect vulnerable groups from mosquito bites, whereas historically indoor residual spraying (IRS) was the primary intervention. In a malaria-endemic area, a pilot study examined different mosquito control interventions applied to entire villages to assess their impact on vectors, malaria incidence and the quality of life of the communities. The Sanaga River near these villages was treated with insecticide to kill blackfly larvae. A medical survey of the six villages had shown that 20% of the population suffered from malaria, while 50% were infected with onchocerciasis and 5% with Loa loa. IRS+ITN using ICON CS (lambda-cyhalothrin capsule suspension formulation) or improved screening of houses combined with outdoor misting reduced the numbers of mosquitoes collected from exit traps compared to the other treatments. More sporozoites were detected in mosquitoes sampled in exit traps in the untreated village than in the treated villages. Malaria incidence several months after treatments was not significantly different from pre-treatment levels. Blackfly adult populations were reduced for several weeks following larvicide application but recovered when treatment was halted.

Geostatistical evaluation of integrated marsh management impact on mosquito vectors using before-after-control-impact (BACI) design

BackgroundIn many parts of the world, salt marshes play a key ecological role as the interface between the marine and the terrestrial environments. Salt marshes are also exceedingly important for public health as larval habitat for mosquitoes that are vectors of disease and significant biting pests. Although grid ditching and pesticides have been effective in salt marsh mosquito control, marsh degradation and other environmental considerations compel a different approach. Targeted habitat modification and biological control methods known as Open Marsh Water Management (OMWM) had been proposed as a viable alternative to marsh-wide physical alterations and chemical control. However, traditional larval sampling techniques may not adequately assess the impacts of marsh management on mosquito larvae. To assess the effectiveness of integrated OMWM and marsh restoration techniques for mosquito control, we analyzed the results of a 5-year OMWM/marsh restoration project to determine changes in mosquito larval production using GIS and geostatistical methods.MethodsThe following parameters were evaluated using "Before-After-Control-Impact" (BACI) design: frequency and geographic extent of larval production, intensity of larval production, changes in larval habitat, and number of larvicide applications. The analyses were performed using Moran's I, Getis-Ord, and Spatial Scan statistics on aggregated before and after data as well as data collected over time. This allowed comparison of control and treatment areas to identify changes attributable to the OMWM/marsh restoration modifications.ResultsThe frequency of finding mosquito larvae in the treatment areas was reduced by 70% resulting in a loss of spatial larval clusters compared to those found in the control areas. This effect was observed directly following OMWM treatment and remained significant throughout the study period. The greatly reduced frequency of finding larvae in the treatment areas led to a significant decrease (~44%) in the number of times when the larviciding threshold was reached. This reduction, in turn, resulted in a significant decrease (~74%) in the number of larvicide applications in the treatment areas post-project. The remaining larval habitat in the treatment areas had a different geographic distribution and was largely confined to the restored marsh surface (i.e. filled-in mosquito ditches); however only ~21% of the restored marsh surface supported mosquito production.ConclusionThe geostatistical analysis showed that OMWM demonstrated considerable potential for effective mosquito control and compatibility with other natural resource management goals such as restoration, wildlife habitat enhancement, and invasive species abatement. GPS and GIS tools are invaluable for large scale project design, data collection, and data analysis, with geostatistical methods serving as an alternative or a supplement to the conventional inference statistics in evaluating the project outcome.

Effect of Repeated Application of Biological Larvicides on Malaria Transmission in Central Côte D’ivoire

Effect of Repeated Application of Biological Larvicides on Malaria Transmission in Central Côte D’ivoire