Harsh Environment Applications Research Articles

Biomimetic, fire-resistant, ultralight and porous carbon fiber sponges enabling safe and efficient remediation of crude oil spills in harsh environments

Advanced absorbents must meet the requirements of superior hydrophobic/oleophilic behavior, favorable adsorption efficiency, and high photothermal and Joule heating performance to handle frequent crude oil spills. However, current carbon-based absorbents suffer from poor fire resistance, thus severely limiting their application in harsh environments. Herein, inspired by a bird's nest, a polymer “welding” strategy is proposed to design a versatile absorbent in which the polymer serves as a “binder” to interconnect discontinuous fibers together to form a 3D welded structure. The continuous conductive networks endow the absorbent with high photothermal and Joule heating effect, thus achieving all-weather adsorption, and improving the adsorption efficiency of crude oil via the self-heating function. Compared with other absorbents, the absorbent prepared via polymer welding technology exhibited preferable comprehensive performance, such as superhydrophobicity, high fire resistance, and high absorption efficiency. Specially, the noninflammable absorbent can restrain the combustion of crude oil, thereby reducing its combustion in case of fire. The versatile absorbent is expected to provide a promising solution for the safe and efficient cleanup of crude oil spills in harsh environments. Overall, the unique polymer welding strategy can be developed into a universal strategy for other material systems to expand their applications.

Solution Processed Schottky Diodes Enabled by Silicon Carbide Nanowires for Harsh Environment Applications.

Silicon carbide nanowires (SiC NWs) exhibit promising features to allow solution-processable electronics to be deployed in harsh environments. By utilizing a nanoscale form of SiC, we were able to disperse the material into liquid solvents, while maintaining the resilience of bulk SiC. This letter reports the fabrication of SiC NW Schottky diodes. Each diode consisted of just one nanowire with an approximate diameter of 160 nm. In addition to analyzing the diode performance, the effects of elevated temperatures and proton irradiation on the current-voltage characteristics of SiC NW Schottky diodes were also examined. The device could maintain similar values for ideality factor, barrier height, and effective Richardson constant upon proton irradiation with a fluence of 1016 ion/cm2 at 873 K. As a result, these metrics have clearly demonstrated the high-temperature tolerance and irradiation resistance of SiC NWs, ultimately indicating that they may provide utility in allowing solution-processable electronics in harsh environments.

A Non-Redundant Latch With Key-Node-Upset Obstacle of Beneficial Efficiency for Harsh Environments Applications

With the scaling down of process, single event upset has been a critical issue for integrated circuits. It is much more likely to occur multiple-node upsets (MNUs) in CMOS ICs in advanced technology. However, the problem remains unsolved because of the lack of efficient methods. In this article, a non-redundant triple-node-upset(TNU)-tolerant latch with high reliability is proposed in 28 nm CMOS technology. The proposed latch named KOBE reduces the number of inner-sensitive nodes as well as the redundancy of the TNU-tolerant latch. In simulations, the proposed KOBE latch performs faster and lower power with higher reliability than most of the TNU-tolerant latches proposed before. The post-layout parasitic extracted simulations show that the proposed KOBE latch has an average improvement of 52.5% in a Power-Area-Delay Product (PADP) compared with the recently reported TNU-hardened latch at a supply voltage of 0.9 V, a working temperature of 27 °C. What’s more, by changing the working voltage and temperature, it is proved that the proposed KOBE latch has a better performance in a harsh environment. The results show that the proposed KOBE latch is of high beneficial efficiency and high reliability, thus can be used in safety-critical applications.

Self-healing behaviors of metallized high-temperature dielectric films for capacitor applications

High-temperature metallized film capacitors (MFCs) are urgently desired in harsh application environments. Although there are a large number of research on polymer dielectrics with satisfactory energy storage property and excellent thermal resistance, it is not clear about the self-healing performance which is the key factor determining whether they can be applied in practice. In this paper, the self-healing behaviors of the metallized high-temperature dielectric films of poly (ethylene 2,6-naphthalate) (PEN), poly (ether ketone) (PEEK) and polyimide (PI) have been explored. Specifically, the influence of polymer chemistry, sheet resistance and interlayer pressure on self-healing process is analyzed in detail. It is found that the high carbon content in PI leads to the self-healing failure at low sheet resistance, though it displays small self-healing energy at high sheet resistance. The probability of successful self-healing of the metallized PEEK film is greatly reduced at high interlayer pressure. In addition, high self-healing energy which would lead to the fast ageing of MFC is obtained in PEEK. Fortunately, PEN with relatively low carbon content and the aliphatic-aromatic alternating structure shows brilliant self-healing ability at different sheet resistances and interlayer pressures with reasonable self-healing energy. Hence, PEN may be a promising candidate for high-temperature MFC from the perspective of self-healing.

Highly robust and flexible micro-supercapacitors based on medium-entropy carbide nanowires toward sub-ambient temperature operation

Currently, the exploration of energy conversion/storage devices for harsh environment applications with satisfying property is still a grand challenge. In the present work, the highly robust and flexible micro-supercapacitors (MSCs) based on (Ta, Ti, Nb)C nanowires (NWs) and activated carbon hybrid structures as the electrode materials are reported. Given to the inherent advantages of (Ta, Ti, Nb)C NWs, e.g. stable electrical conductivity and mechanical flexibility, and abundant porous structure stemed from cross-linked (Ta, Ti, Nb)C NWs and bamboo-based active carbon, the as-prepared (Ta, Ti, Nb)C/C-MSCs show high electrochemical performance, mechanical stability, and temperature tolerance over a wide temperature range. Remarkably, the as-constructed (Ta, Ti, Nb)C/C-MSCs can endure the sub-ambient temperature operation down to −50 °C with a capacitance retention of 82.7% and present capacitance retention up to 97.7% over one cycle of cooling and heating between −50 and 25 °C, compared with that at room temperature. Even under progressive variation in temperatures ranged between 25 and -50 °C, the capacitance retention keeps up to 92.6% over 9000 cycles, representing their promising to be serviced as highly robust MSCs against harsh low-temperature conditions for energy storage.

Improved corrosion resistance of ZrO2/MgO coating for magnesium alloys by manipulating the pore structure

Magnesium (Mg) alloys are popular among structural materials due to their high specific strength and good machinability. However, poor corrosion resistance limits its application in harsh environments, which requires ceramic coating to overcome the shortage of corrosion sensitivity. In this work, ZrO2/MgO ceramic coating was in situ synthesized by plasma electrolytic oxide (PEO) technology, coatings with different pore structures were fabricated by adjusting the pH of the electrolyte, and X-ray computed tomography (XCT) is used to quantitatively investigate the pore structure in ceramic coating. As the pH of the electrolyte increases from 3 to 12, the Zr(OH)4 colloidal particles from electropositive to electronegative charges. Electropositive Zr(OH)4 moves to the anode by diffusion, while electronegative Zr(OH)4 participates in the growth of the coating by electromigration. Due to the electromigration mode at pH = 12, the ZrO2 deposited around the pores caused a change in the pore structure from interconnected to isolated, which resulted in a reduction of the overall porosity to 8.06%. Isolated pores effectively prevent the penetration of corrosive media, resulting in the corrosion current density (icorr) being nearly 46 times lower than the coating with pH = 3. This study presents a novel strategy of adjusting pore structure to enhance the corrosion resistance of ZrO2 ceramic coating, which may have implications for various applications.

Electronic‐Resonance‐Enhanced Coherent Raman Spectroscopy with a Single Femtosecond Laser Beam

AbstractCoherent Raman scattering (CRS) spectroscopy holds versatile applications in many fields ranging from measuring temperature and concentration in reacting flows to imaging biological molecules in living cells. Although the powerful spectroscopic technique has been studied for a few decades, significant attention is still paid to developing state‐of‐the‐art CRS spectroscopy with the simpler design and higher sensitivity for practical applications in harsh or complex environments. Herein, a novel electronic‐resonance‐enhanced coherent Raman scattering (ERE‐CRS) technique is developed with a single femtosecond laser beam. Such single‐beam ERE‐CRS scheme is accomplished with the narrowband air lasing signal naturally generated in the interaction region as a probe source. The developed technique not only avoids fine spatio‐temporal control in the conventional multibeam configuration, but also accomplishes 1–2 orders of magnitude enhancement of Raman signal due to the resonance of air lasing with electronic transition of the target gas. The dramatic enhancement effect is also manifested through the comparative measurements in CO2 isotopes. The single‐beam ERE‐CRS spectroscopy shows an unprecedented opportunity for the high‐sensitivity standoff detections of gas‐phase molecules and plasmas.

High‐Electron‐Mobility Transistor‐Inspired Freestanding AlGaN/GaN/AlN Optical Waveguide for High‐Pressure Sensing Applications

Herein, a high‐pressure sensor based on freestanding high‐electron‐mobility transistor (HEMT)‐inspired optical waveguide comprising AlGaN/GaN/AlN layers on silicon carbide (SiC) substrate is proposed and studied for harsh environment applications using finite element method (FEM). The working principle of the sensor is based on the change in birefringence due to applied pressure. Further, the transmission spectra for different wavelengths are evaluated. For the best possible outcomes, the dip wavelengths under different values of pressure are tracked and studied for different gallium nitride (GaN) core thicknesses. After optimizing GaN core thickness and AlGaN ratio, the sensor displays a good linear response within the pressure range of 90–150 MPa. The two dip wavelength shifts demonstrate maximum spectral sensitivities of −209.6 and 180 pm MPa−1, respectively, for the pressure range of 90–150 MPa within the communication wavelength regime of 1500–1600 nm. By considering the features such as cost‐effectiveness, portability, simple design, and easy detection process, the proposed pressure sensor is optimum for harsh environment measurements and studies.

Lightweight MXene/carbon composite foam with hollow skeleton for air-stable, high-temperature-resistant and compressible electromagnetic interference shielding

Lightweight electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding materials with temperature resistant and compressible performance are highly desirable for applications in harsh and complex environment. Herein, we report MXene/carbon composite foam with three-dimensional hollow skeleton structure and low MXene loading by self-assembly and low heating rate (1 °C/min) pyrolysis methods. The composite foam exhibits a density of as low as 5 mg cm−3 with only 3 wt% MXene loading. An average EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) of more than 25 dB over the whole X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz) and more than 30 dB covering the Ku-band (12.4–18 GHz) and the K-band (18–26.5 GHz) with 2 mm thickness are achieved. Benefiting from the low density, the corresponding specific EMI SE (SSE/t) is up to 27300 dB cm2 g−1, which is comparable to or even better than the values of many shielding materials. The foams still display excellent EMI shielding performance after exposure to air in ambient atmosphere (temperature: 25 °C, humidity: ∼30%) for a year or being heated to 210 °C, demonstrating an excellent air stability and temperature resistance. Furthermore, the MXene/carbon composite foam maintains the high EMI shielding performance after 1000 compressing-releasing cycles, demonstrating excellent compressibility.

A high-temperature high-pressure supercapacitor based on ionic liquids for harsh environment applications

The study of energy storage devices able to work in harsh environments is becoming of paramount importance. Numerous applications require devices able to sustain extreme temperatures but often the pressure is discarded. Herein we present the evaluation of the energy storage performance of a prototype electrochemical supercapacitor from room temperature and ambient pressure up to 170 °C and 640 bar. The supercapacitor is fabricated by exploiting activated carbon-based electrodes and an ionic liquid as electrolyte. [PYR14][TFSI] has been selected for this scope since it possesses suitable features for the investigated case of study. The whole device was sealed in a vacuum pouch and tested into a customized high-temperature high-pressure (HTHP) test bench. The device shows typical EDLC behavior in the whole HTHP region with capacitive response ranging from the low value of 46.4 mF cm−2 at {RT, 600 bar} up to 84.6 mF cm−2 at {175 °C, 640 bar}, with a reference value of 58.8 mF cm−2. At these points, the rated energy values are 92.8 mWh cm−2 and 169.1 mWh cm−2. We observed that pressure mainly acts on dissipative parasite components of the device while temperature strongly impinges transport properties and capacitance as expected from literature results.

Pore functionalization of cationic covalent organic frameworks membrane: A case towards acid recovery

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs), which are a new class of porous organic materials, are considered as potential candidates for separation membranes because of their regular channels and tailored functionality. The imine-linked COF was synthesized using reversible condensation reactions, resulting in its un-stabilization in the acid environment. Thus, it is a formidable challenge to develop stable COFs membranes for applications in harsh environments (e.g. strong acid). Herein, we demonstrated the in-situ construction of acid-stable COF separating layer (TMTATGCl) on the surface of the hydrophilic hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile (HPAN) substrate via acid-catalyzed interfacial polymerization. Triaminoguanidine chloride (TGCl), a cationic monomer, was used to construct cationic nanochannels in the COF layer, conferring its screening feature toward cations, especially toward divalent cations. Besides, implanted methoxy groups could facilitate H+ diffusion along the pore pathway of the as-prepared COF. As a result, the methoxy functionalized cationic nanochannels of the DMTATGCl/HPAN enhanced H+ transfer, while other ions (e.g. Fe2+) were obstructed, allowing for high selectivity (S = 1248.9) and permeability (UH+ = 0.0118 m/h). Moreover, the membranes (TMTATGCl/HPAN) exhibited remarkable acid-stability, which maintained the high separation performance after 10 cycles under strong-acid conditions. This study provides an effective strategy for developing the ion channels membrane with specific interaction sites for effective ion separation.

Seven-core fiber embedded ultra-long period grating for curvature, torsion or temperature sensing

We have proposed and experimentally demonstrated a novel seven-core fiber (SCF) embedded ultra-long period grating (EU-LPFG) structure for curvature, torsion or temperature sensing. The EU-LPFG is fabricated by periodically splicing a SCF and a single mode fiber (SMF) just by using a fusion splicer and a microscope. Due to the periodic refractive index modulation, the EU-LPFG forms two resonant peaks in only 8-period SMF-SCF structure with a total length of 5.0 mm, has high curvature, torsion or temperature sensitivity of 31.26 nm/m−1, 0.19 nm/(rad/m) and 0.53 nm/°C in the range of 0.36–1.61 nm/m−1, 0–57.12 rad/m, 30–100 °C, respectively. According to the compact structure, simple fabricated method, high curvature and torsion sensitivity and ability to measure temperature, the proposed novel SCF-embedded EU-LPFG can be used as the competitive all-fiber sensor in harsh environment applications.

Early Strength Evolution of Cement Grouts Adopted in Reinforced Concrete Subjected to Na2SO4 Corrosion

Due to the harsh application environment, sodium sulfate corrosion poses a considerable threat to the performance of reinforced concrete. Considering high fluidization and early strength cement grouts (HECG) are widely adopted in the repair engineering of reinforced concrete, HECG are also subjected to the action of corrosive substances. Even though numerous research results disclosed the effect of sodium sulfate corrosion on the performance and the degradation mechanisms of conventional cement grouts, the degradation mechanisms of HECG under sodium sulfate corrosion are still to be studied because HECG have the exceptional characteristics of high fluidization and early strength that conventional cement grouts do not have. Hence, the compressive and flexural strengths of HECG after corrosion with different sodium sulfate solution concentrations and corrosion times were tested in this study. Moreover, the evolution of the microstructure of HECG in the process of corrosion was analyzed with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) test. The changes in the hydration products were investigated through the X-ray diffraction (XRD) test and the Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) test. Consequently, the degradation mechanisms of HECG in the case of different sodium sulfate solution concentrations and corrosion times were revealed. The results indicate that the corrosion of sodium sulfate and hydration exists simultaneously when the corrosion time is less than 7 days. When the corrosion time is 14 days, the hydration of HECG was complete. The main source of the early strength of HECG is that the C-S-H gel crosses and clings to form a solid and compact whole in three-dimensional space. The effect of Na2SO4 on the early strength formation of HECG is that the corrosion of Na2SO4 can postpone the conversion of CH crystal into C-S-H gel and damage the generated CH crystal. This study on the degradation mechanisms of HECG exposed to sodium sulfate corrosion can provide new ideas for sulfate resistance and durability design of HECG.

Tailored compliant mechanisms for reconfigurable electromagnetic devices

Reconfigurable electromagnetic devices, specifically reconfigurable antennas, have shown to be integral to the future of communication systems. However, mechanically robust designs that can survive real-world, harsh environment applications and high-power conditions remain rare to this day. In this paper, the general framework for a field of both discrete and continuously mechanically reconfigurable devices is established by combining compliant mechanisms with electromagnetics. To exemplify this new concept, a reconfigurable compliant mechanism antenna is demonstrated which exhibits continuously tunable performance across a broad band of frequencies. Moreover, three additional examples are also introduced that further showcase the versatility and advanced capabilities of compliant mechanism enabled electromagnetic devices. Unlike previous approaches, this is achieved with minimal part counts, additive manufacturing techniques, and high reliability, which mechanical compliant mechanism devices are known for. The results presented exemplify how compliant mechanisms have the capacity to transform the broader field of reconfigurable electromagnetic devices.

Broadband high-sensitivity acoustic sensing based on Brillouin random fiber laser

In this study, a broadband high-sensitivity fiber-optic acoustic sensor with simple structure and low cost based on Brillouin random fiber laser (BRFL) is proposed and demonstrated theoretically and experimentally. A double coupler fiber ring resonator (DCFRR) in the BRFL, which filters out redundant random modes and ensures high-quality lasing output, is utilized as the sensing element for acoustic sensing thanks to the high sensitivity of the transmission spectrum of the DCFRR to its cavity length variations induced by acoustic perturbations. The resultant shift in the transmission spectrum of the DCFRR by the external acoustic vibrations modulates the gain available inside the BRFL cavity and transfers the resonant random mode, leading to directly modulated lasing intensity output from the BRFL and thus the feasibility for acoustic signal recovery. The experimental results demonstrate the broadband frequency response and high sensitivity feature of the proposed BRFL-based acoustic sensor, which is able to detect acoustic signals in both low-frequency (2 Hz ∼ 500 Hz) and high-frequency (0.5 kHz ∼ 200 kHz) regions with high signal-to-noise ratio beyond 10 dB. In addition, the structural flexibility of the proposed sensor enables remote acoustic sensing, making it an ideal candidate for acoustic applications in harsh environments.

Bifunctional SiC/Si 3N 4 aerogel for highly efficient electromagnetic wave absorption and thermal insulation

SiC ceramics are attractive electromagnetic (EM) absorption materials for the application in harsh environment because of their low density, good dielectric tunable performance, and chemical stability. However, the performance of current SiC-based materials to absorb EM wave is generally unsatisfactory due to poor impedance matching. Herein, we report ultralight SiC/Si₃N₄ composite aerogels (~15 mg·cm⁻³) consisting of numerous interweaving SiC nanowires and Si₃N₄ nanoribbons. Aerogels were prepared via siloxane pyrolysis and chemical vapor reaction through the template method. The optimal aerogel exhibits excellent EM wave absorption properties with a strong reflection loss (RL, −48.6 dB) and a wide effective absorption band (EAB, 7.4 GHz) at a thickness of 2 mm, attributed to good impedance matching and multi attenuation mechanisms of waves within the unique network structure. In addition, the aerogel exhibits high thermal stability in air until 1000 ℃ and excellent thermal insulation performance (0.030 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). These superior performances make the SiC/Si₃N₄ composite aerogel promising to become a new generation of absorption material served under extreme conditions.

Nature‐Inspired Solar‐Thermal Gradient Reduced Graphene Oxide Aerogel‐based Bilayer Phase Change Composites for Self‐Adaptive Personal Thermal Management

AbstractAlthough personal thermal management (PTM) materials for daily routine environments are widely investigated, the exploration of multifunctional PTM materials with excellent feasibility in complex and outdoor scenarios is still in its infancy. Herein, inspired by the temperature regulation effect of the atmosphere, a novel design for fabricating solar‐thermal gradient reduced graphene oxide (RGO) aerogel‐based bilayer phase change composite (GRGC) featuring “energy regulation” and “energy inverse compensation” is proposed for self‐adaptive PTM applications. By integrating the solar‐thermal energy conversion ability of RGO, the heat regulation of the aerogel/octadecane bilayer structure with the unique gradient RGO framework inside, and the latent‐heat compensation of octadecane, the bilayer GRGC can serve as an efficient PTM device to mitigate drastic temperature changes of human skin in harsh environments. This multifunctional PTM device can not only keep a warm skin surface microclimate in a frigid environment of −5 °C via the synergistic effect of the solar‐thermal conversion, the aerogel thermal insulation, and the phase‐change latent heat release, but also provide efficient thermal buffering to prevent hyperthermia in hot environments through its phase‐change behavior and its thermal insulation. This gradient and bilayer design opens a new avenue for fabricating self‐adaptive PTM devices for applications in harsh environments.

Conductometric Cr2O3/TiO2/Ti3C2Tx Gas Sensor for Detecting Triethylamine at Room Temperature

MXene-based gas-sensitive nanocomposites are an area of high interest in developing high-performance gas sensors that operate at room temperature. Combining MXene with different nano-sized metal oxides is a strategy to improve sensing performance, but poor chemical stability, especially in humid environments, is the biggest obstacle to practical applications. Recently we demonstrated a method to prepare a ternary heterostructure gas sensor by decorating a stable TiO2/Ti3C2Tx composite with MoO3 which also provided selectivity. Here, we develop the proposed concept by synthesizing a Cr2O3/TiO2/Ti3C2Tx gas-sensitive material that shows a unique rapid and selective response to Triethylamine. In addition, the sensor offers excellent chemical stability and can maintain its morphology and gas sensing performance even after ageing at 500 °C for two months. This work demonstrates the validity of the proposed approach for an additional metal oxide and yields a sensor that exhibits potential for excellent practical application in harsh environment.

Effect of gamma irradiation on structural, morphological, optical and thermal properties of Ca doped CuO nanostructure thin films

Semiconductor optoelectronic and photonic devices are used in many harsh environment applications such as space and nuclear reactor etc. Gamma radiation in such environments significantly interacts with the semiconductor materials used in these devices, changing their structural, optical, morphological and thermal properties. Therefore, it is vital to investigate the gamma radiation effect of the material to be exposed to radiation in terms of the performance and lifetime of the application. In this study, nanostructured thin films were produced by doping different ratios (0, 0.3, 1.25, 2.5 and 5 mg/mL) of Ca to the copper oxide (CuO) is a semiconductor used in optoelectronic and photonic devices. The thin films produced were deposited on the glass substrate by the spin coating method. The effects of gamma rays on the structural, morphological, optical and thermal properties of the films were investigated by irradiating with different doses (1, 5, 15, 50, 100 and 150 kGy) used a Cobalt-60 gamma radiation source. The structural, morphological, optical and thermal properties of Ca doped CuO nanostructured thin films were investigated by using X-ray diffractometer (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), atomic force microscope (AFM), mechanical profilometer, UV-Vis spectrophotometry (UV-Vis) and thermogravimetric differential thermal analyzer (TG/DTA). The band gap of thin films were been calculated using Tauc’s plot. The obtained results showed that high-dose gamma radiation caused defects in undoped and Ca doped CuO nanostructured thin films and affected their structural, morphological, thermal and optical properties. Despite the resulting defects, Ca doped CuO nanostructured thin films showed higher absorption intensity and thermal stability against gamma rays. These results showed that Ca doped CuO nanostructured thin films are suitable for many harsh environment applications such as space and nuclear reactors.

Circularly symmetric nanopores in 3D femtosecond laser nanolithography with burst control and the role of energy dose

Abstract The fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures within optical materials is currently a highly sought-after capability. Achieving nanoscale structuring of media within its inner volume in 3D and with free design flexibility, high accuracy and precision is a development yet to be demonstrated. In this work, a 3D laser nanolithography technique is developed which allows producing mm-long hollow nanopores inside solid-state laser crystals and with a high degree of control of pore cross-sectional aspect ratio and size. We report an in-depth study on the formation of pores both within the non-thermal regime at which temperature is fast dissipated after each laser pulse, and for a thermally controlled regime using pulse-bursts which facilitate the formation of pores with highly circular shapes down to 1.1. We demonstrate this process for a wide range of speeds, pulse repetition rates and pulse energies, thus opening the door to a much more useful nanofabrication technique for nanophotonics. Finally, we also report the change in index of refraction that is produced at the nanoscale obtaining a positive index contrast of ∼3%. The work therefore provides a promising path towards reliable 3D nanostructuring of solid-state laser media for the flexible fabrication of large and complex structures with features sizes from the nanoscale up to the mm-scale. Moreover, due to the embedded, seamless, and monolithic nature of this technology, and since YAG crystals can sustain temperatures of up to 1900 °C and are highly chemically inert and erosion resistant, we anticipate its direct application in harsh environments.