Application Code Research Articles

Model-driven development for the seL4 microkernel using the HAMR framework

Verified microkernels such as seL4 provide trustworthy foundations for safety- and security-critical systems. However, their full potential remains unrealized due, in part, to the lack of application development environments that help engineers integrate the microkernel’s configuration and hosting of application code with modeling, analysis, and verification tools that address broader aspects of the development lifecycle.This paper presents a model-driven tool chain for the seL4 microkernel based on the open source High Assurance Modeling and Rapid engineering (HAMR) code generation framework for the Architecture and Analysis Definition Language (AADL). We describe how the semantics of AADL communication and threading can be realized in terms of the access primitives and strong spatial and temporal partitioning mechanisms provided by seL4. For AADL users, seL4 provides a high-assurance platform with formally verified enforcement of component boundaries and communication pathways. For seL4 users, AADL provides high-level abstractions for developing seL4 applications, along with an ecosystem of system engineering and analysis tools. We illustrate the framework by applying a model-based development environment for increasing resiliency against cyber attacks to an unmanned aircraft flight control system.

Education 4.0: Integrating Codes, Standards, and Regulations in the Chemical Engineering Curriculum

Education 4.0 is the framework to facilitate the development of skills and competencies of engineering students required for Industry 4.0 through the integration of Industry 4.0 applied concepts, networked approach, digitalization of higher education institutions (HEI), and online advancement of teaching and learning practices. In the chemical engineering curriculum of several HEIs, considerable progress in implementing this framework has been made by including computer-aided design tools, updating manufacturing technologies, using simulation and analysis of virtual models, and implementing data analytics in engineering courses and programs. Process and plant design courses such as Plant Design demand that undergraduate students leverage knowledge from core courses completed during first three years of their degree program by developing a plant's conceptual design. This course clearly sets a pathway to integrate Education 4.0 to Industry 4.0. All stakeholders of this course (students, teaching team, and clients) can progressively identify challenges and opportunities to optimize this integration. Many suggested improvements might require a vertical integration of new concepts in the chemical engineering curriculum, involving courses of different levels throughout the undergraduate curriculum. Nevertheless, we consider that immediate actions shall be taken by teaching teams and industry partners in courses such as Plant Design for students achieving the required competencies and skills before graduating from universities. For instance, running a successful multi-disciplinary engineering team for plant design in the industry will require undergraduate students to become familiar with codes, standards, and regulations. According to our industry partners, this lack of familiarization significantly affects the learning curve of junior engineers at work and shows a disconnection between what is learned at university and what is required in the workplace. To facilitate the transition of our students into the process design industry in the framework of Education 4.0-Industry 4.0, in this work, we describe and present the results of applying a strategy to tackle this challenge by (i) identifying the currently applicable codes, standards, and regulations in the process engineering industry for each technical deliverable (process flow diagram, piping and instrumentation diagram, line list, plot plan, design of equipment, risk management, and safety documents) of the course; (ii) designing and delivering workshops to describe and illustrate their applicability; and (iii) creating a written set of guidelines applicable to the course and the workplace.

A Formal Verification and Validation of a Low Magnetic Reynolds Number MHD Code for Fusion Applications

As the nuclear fusion research advances, researchers and engineers focus more on the design of the required systems that complement the nuclear fusion reaction in the plasma of a Tokamak. Some proposals for breeding blankets as well as plasma-facing components’ protection systems are based in liquid metal flows under the Tokamak intense magnetic fields. This creates the situation where induced magnetic field can be neglected and the low magnetic Reynolds number (Re) electric potential formulation can be used to close the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) system of equations. In the last few years, many different laboratories have developed their own MHD codes to study the liquid metal flow. A formal verification and validation of such codes is necessary to enhance the reliability of the numerical results and to make sure that design decisions are based on safe grounds. The fusion community has made the effort of proposing standardized benchmark cases through which any MHD code should demonstrate its reliability. This work contains the formal validation and verification activities of the MHD code developed some years ago in the Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (UPC) and currently candidate to contribute to the research done at the Princeton Plasma Phyisics Laboratory (PPPL). The code is implemented over OpenFOAM which makes it easily modifiable. Among these benchmark cases, there are high Hartmann number (Ha), 3-D flows, and magneto-convective interaction cases.

Ethereum Application for Product Anti-Counterfeiting

The project's goal is to create an application that assures consumers don't have to rely solely on merchants to determine whether or not products are authentic. It also assures that producer may use this system to supply genuine products without having to run direct operated outlets, lowering product quality assurance costs dramatically. The trade in counterfeit goods is expanding, hurting the sales and earnings of businesses who are affected. This project proposes a fully-functional blockchain system to prevent product counterfeiting to ensure the identification and traceability of real products throughout the supply chain. Establishments only need to pay minimal transaction fees, and they no longer need to be concerned about the probability of obtaining counterfeit products. This project utilizes Ethereum blockchain and Remix to develop the application code in the form of a Smart Contract. For testing and implementation, Ganache and MetaMask are used, which simulates the blockchain environment and user account respectively. The Client-Side application leverages with Reactjs and Web3js to interact with smart contract and provide its functionalities to the users, maintaining the integrity of the system. Key Words: Ethereum, Anti-Counterfeit, Solidity, Web3js, Reactjs, Ganache

Protocol for iterative optimization of modified peptides bound to protein targets

Peptides are commonly used as therapeutic agents. However, they suffer from easy degradation and instability. Replacing natural by non-natural amino acids can avoid these problems, and potentially improve the affinity towards the target protein. Here, we present a computational pipeline to optimize peptides based on adding non-natural amino acids while improving their binding affinity. The workflow is an iterative computational evolution algorithm, inspired by the PARCE protocol, that performs single-point mutations on the peptide sequence using modules from the Rosetta framework. The modifications can be guided based on the structural properties or previous knowledge of the biological system. At each mutation step, the affinity to the protein is estimated by sampling the complex conformations and applying a consensus metric using various open protein-ligand scoring functions. The mutations are accepted based on the score differences, allowing for an iterative optimization of the initial peptide. The sampling/scoring scheme was benchmarked with a set of protein-peptide complexes where experimental affinity values have been reported. In addition, a basic application using a known protein-peptide complex is also provided. The structure- and dynamic-based approach allows users to optimize bound peptides, with the option to personalize the code for further applications. The protocol, called mPARCE, is available at: https://github.com/rochoa85/mPARCE/.

A comparison study of GEANT4 and MCNP6 on neutron-induced gamma simulation

Neutron-induced gamma simulation has multiple applications in various fields, such as radiation therapy, imaging, and nuclear well logging. Among them, Monte Carlo Codes, MCNP6, and GEANT4 are suitable solutions for nuclear detection. Since there are few published comparisons of GEANT4 with MCNP6, especially for the simulation of neutron-induced gamma spectra, therefore, the aim of this paper is to compare the GEANT4 and MCNP6 in the simulation of low-energy (less than 20 MeV) neutron-induced inelastic and capture gamma spectra, the feasibility of which could help to provide an alternative approach for researchers where MCNP6 is not available. Two representative models pertaining to nuclear well logging applications are designed and employed for the purpose of comparison, based on which neutron-induced inelastic and capture gamma spectra are analyzed using different methods associated with each code specifically, such as Time Window, Energy Cutoff, and Physics Tracking. Based on the cross-section library ENDF/B-VII.1, the results obtained from MCNP 6.1 and GEANT4 10.6 match well, which demonstrates the feasibility of using either code in such applications.

Analisis Malware Ahmyth pada Platform Android Menggunakan Metode Reverse Engineering

Android is the most widely used operating system in the world with a percentage of 74.82% in the Android operating system market share. This fact makes malicious software (malware) developers make mobile phone users with the Android operating system the main target for malware attacks. Attackers can change the application code by entering malicious code, repackaging the application, and publishing the application on the android application market. This study aims to find out how the malware that has been inserted into the android application works by using dynamic analysis and extracting the dangerous licenses used by the ahmyth malware by using reverse engineering techniques. The results of the analysis show that the ahmyth malware will run its service after the device restarts and waits for commands from the C&C server to perform certain actions on the infected device.

Improvement of GAMMA+ code for system transient and thermo-fluid safety analysis of sodium-cooled fast reactors

The GAMMA+ code was originally developed for the system transient and safety analysis of a high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR). Researches on the extension and improvement of the capability of the GAMMA+ code for applications to a sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) have been progressive. This paper summarizes the major items achieved on improvements of the GAMMA+ code to simulate thermo-fluid phenomena in an SFR. These include thermo-physical properties of sodium, empirical models and correlations (i.e., pressure drop and heat transfer correlations), a simplified model for stratified sodium and gas flow, and reactivity feedback models dedicated to an SFR. Such items for the improvement are essential to accommodate the features of an SFR which are different from those of an HTGR. The verification and validation of the improved version of GAMMA+ have been in progress. Initial efforts to verify and validate the improved version of GAMMA+ are also summarized in this paper. The topics of the efforts include conceptual problems having analytical solutions, heat exchanger performances, and a plant trip test of Monju. The results of the verification and validation studies demonstrate the good performance and reliability of the improved version of the GAMMA+ code for analyzing one-dimensional (1-D) as well as multi-dimensional thermo-fluid phenomena in an SFR.

Edge-Centric Programming for IoT Applications With Automatic Code Partitioning

IoT application development usually involves separate programming at the device side and server side. While separate programming style is sufficient for many simple applications, it is not suitable for many complex applications that involve complex interactions and intensive data processing. We propose <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">EdgeProg</i> , an edge-centric programming approach to simplify IoT application programming, motivated by the increasing popularity of edge computing. With EdgeProg, users could write application logic in a centralized manner with an augmented If-This-Then-That (IFTTT) syntax and virtual sensor mechanism. The program can be processed at the edge server, which can automatically generate the actual application code and intelligently partition the code into device code and server code, for achieving the optimal latency. EdgeProg employs dynamic linking and loading to deploy the device code on a variety of IoT devices, which do not run any application-specific codes at the start. Results show that EdgeProg achieves an average reduction of 20.96%, 27.8% and 79.41% in terms of execution latency, energy consumption, and lines of code compared with state-of-the-art approaches.

Combining Rigorous Requirements Specifications with Low-Code Platforms to Rapid Development Software Business Applications

Low-code development platforms have gained popularity as an effective solution to address urgent market demands for software applications. These platforms have often overcome challenges faced by traditional software development processes, including requirements engineering processes, as they tend to incorporate the requirements in their prototyping phase. However, low-code platforms have followed different approaches with proprietary languages, which is a problem when customers need to move to other technologies or intend to define the specification of their applications in a readable and platform-independent way. To mitigate these challenges, this article discusses a model-driven approach that semi-automatically produces software business applications by combining rigorous requirement specifications (defined with the ITLingo ASL language) with a concrete low-code platform (Quidgest Genio). First, we analyse the common concepts in both ITLingo ASL and Genio languages. Then, we discuss model-to-model transformations that allow converting ASL specifications into Genio low-code projects. Finally, the code generation capabilities of the Genio low-code platform are employed to generate the source code of the target software applications. To evaluate the consistency of the proposed approach, we use and discuss a simple and representative case study based on a fictitious system, the Invoice Management System (IMS), whose requirements are similar to those found in many business applications.

Automated wall‐climbing robot for concrete construction inspection

AbstractHuman‐made concrete structures require cutting‐edge inspection tools to ensure the quality of the construction to meet the applicable building codes and to maintain the sustainability of the aging infrastructure. This paper introduces a wall‐climbing robot for metric concrete inspection that can reach difficult‐to‐access locations with a close‐up view for visual data collection and real‐time flaws detection and localization. The wall‐climbing robot is able to detect concrete surface flaws (i.e., cracks and spalls) and produce a defect‐highlighted 3D model with extracted location clues and metric measurements. The system encompasses four modules, including a data collection module to capture RGB‐D frames and inertial measurement unit data, a visual–inertial navigation system module to generate pose‐coupled keyframes, a deep neural network module (namely InspectionNet) to classify each pixel into three classes (background, crack, and spall), and a semantic reconstruction module to integrate per‐frame measurement into a global volumetric model with defects highlighted. We found that commercial RGB‐D camera output depth is noisy with holes, and a Gussian‐Bilateral filter for depth completion is introduced to inpaint the depth image. The method achieves the state‐of‐the‐art depth completion accuracy even with large holes. Based on the semantic mesh, we introduce a coherent defect metric evaluation approach to compute the metric measurement of crack and spall area (e.g., length, width, area, and depth). Field experiments on a concrete bridge demonstrate that our wall‐climbing robot is able to operate on a rough surface and can cross over shallow gaps. The robot is capable to detect and measure surface flaws under low illuminated environments and texture‐less environments. Besides the robot system, we create the first publicly accessible concrete structure spalls and cracks data set that includes 820 labeled images and over 10,000 field‐collected images and release it to the research community.

FASLR: Function-Based ASLR via TrustZone-M and MPU for Resource-Constrained IoT Systems

The address space layout randomization (ASLR) has been widely deployed on modern operating systems against code reuse attacks (CRAs), such as return-oriented programming (ROP) and jump-oriented programming (JOP). However, porting ASLR to resource-constrained IoT devices is a great challenge due to the limited memory space for randomization. We propose a function-based ASLR scheme (fASLR) for IoT runtime security utilizing the ARM TrustZone-M technology and the memory protection unit (MPU) supported by ARM Cortex-M processors. fASLR loads a function from the flash and randomizes its base address in a randomization region in RAM when the function is being called. We design novel mechanisms on cleaning up finished functions from the RAM and memory addressing to tackle the complexity of function relocation and randomization. Optimizations are applied to effectively reduce overhead introduced by runtime memory management. We also formally prove that user applications will run correctly with fASLR enabled. Compared with the related work, a prominent advantage of fASLR is that fASLR can run an application even if the application code cannot be completely loaded into RAM for execution. We test fASLR with 21 applications. The experimental results show that fASLR achieves a high randomization entropy and incurs a runtime overhead of less than 10%.

Eye tracking technologies to visualize secure coding behavior

Secure coders' experiences and performances vary greatly and any missed security flaws in source code may lead to costly consequences. Their behavior to analyze source code and develop mitigation techniques is not well understood. Our objective is to gain insight into the strategies and techniques from both novice and experienced developers. Proper understanding can help us to inform inexperienced coders to efficiently and accurately approach, discover, and mitigate security flaws. Our research relies upon eye tracking hardware and software to collect and analyze the eye gazes. Unlike existing approaches, we incorporate a wide range of tasks simultaneously reading documentation, writing code, and using security coding analysis tools. We analyze both static and dynamic (interactive) stimuli in a realistic software development environment. Our pictorial visualizations represent a coder's eye gazes that visually demonstrates their behavior and patterns. In addition, we provide the full context of the stimuli that a participant observed. This allows for investigating the behavior at a range of tasks for a single participant and between participants. Our secure coding tasks include reading documentation, reading source code, and writing source code for a web application as well as utilizing security code scanning tools. Our contributions also include (1) novel visualization techniques to present transitions among components within and between applications, and (2) presentations of coders' attention levels during secure coding by investigating the change of pupil sizes. The eye tracking collection and analysis techniques support both modifiable stimuli and stimuli presented in different sequences based upon individual participant's behavior. • Gain Insight into Secure Coders' Behavior and Methodologies Using Eye Trackers. • Visualizations Of Eye Gazes to Understand Approaches to Secure Coding. • Investigate Behavior When Discovering and Mitigating Source Code Flaws. • Evaluation Of Hands-On Secure Coding Learning Modules. • Dynamic Eye-Tracking Stimuli for Realistic Software Development Environment.

427.3: Military Veterans’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Interest in VCA Treatment for Disfiguring Service-Related Injuries

Background: Thousands of American service members have suffered catastrophic injuries to the head, face, and extremities resulting in functional limitations and significant disfigurement. The rise of vascularized composite allograft (VCA) procedures now allows for hand and face transplants, which can improve the functioning, mobility, and quality of life for these veterans, particularly those who have not responded well to available reconstructive procedures or prosthetics. Despite potentially life-enhancing outcomes, however, the awareness of and interest in this treatment option by VCA-eligible veterans is unknown. By examining this population’s receptivity to VCA, the study’s goal of identifying the assets and barriers to receiving a VCA will instruct more informed decision making about this treatment. Methods: In collaboration with the Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC) in Coatesville, PA, and the Department of Defense Joint Trauma Registry, over 1,100 medical records from 2010-2019 were reviewed for applicable ICD-9 codes. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted via telephone or video conference with up to 60 military veterans to examine current health status, treatments and therapies, impact of their injuries on daily life, and reactions to VCA, as the primary domains of inquiry. Interviews were audio-recorded for accuracy, deidentified, and transcribed for analysis. The existing domains and emergent themes formed the basis of a codebook, and MAXQDA software was used to facilitate qualitative coding of the data. Results: Most participants interviewed to date, reported amputation of one or both hands. Although largely unfamiliar with the technical terminology of “Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation,” most expressed familiarity with the procedure when described in more detail. While initial reactions were largely positive, many participants did not see this treatment as necessary for themselves. Multiple participants indicated greater receptivity if they were less adapted to their injury or did not have at least one functioning upper limb. Reported concerns included possible graft rejection, recovery time, medical fatigue, side effects of immunosuppression, and the effectiveness of the VCA procedure. Respondents identified more functional independence as the most critical and desired outcome of receiving a VCA graft in addition to navigating their day-to-day environments with fewer accommodations and adaptive equipment. Conclusion: Participants viewed VCA as an interesting medical advancement and acknowledged its potential benefits but also expressed skepticism about its efficacy. These observations provide a knowledge base for researchers and practitioners engaged in growing the field of VCA. Further examination of the attitudes and experiences of the caregivers and healthcare providers of VCA-eligible patients would offer valuable perspectives in informing decision making about VCA. U.S. Department of Defense, Grant/Award Number: W81XWH-19-1-0274.

Medna-metadata: an open-source data management system for tracking environmental DNA samples and metadata.

MotivationEnvironmental DNA (eDNA), as a rapidly expanding research field, stands to benefit from shared resources including sampling protocols, study designs, discovered sequences, and taxonomic assignments to sequences. High-quality community shareable eDNA resources rely heavily on comprehensive metadata documentation that captures the complex workflows covering field sampling, molecular biology lab work, and bioinformatic analyses. There are limited sources that provide documentation of database development on comprehensive metadata for eDNA and these workflows and no open-source software.ResultsWe present medna-metadata, an open-source, modular system that aligns with Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable guiding principles that support scholarly data reuse and the database and application development of a standardized metadata collection structure that encapsulates critical aspects of field data collection, wet lab processing, and bioinformatic analysis. Medna-metadata is showcased with metabarcoding data from the Gulf of Maine (Polinski et al., 2019).Availability and implementationThe source code of the medna-metadata web application is hosted on GitHub (https://github.com/Maine-eDNA/medna-metadata). Medna-metadata is a docker-compose installable package. Documentation can be found at https://medna-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/?badge=latest. The application is implemented in Python, PostgreSQL and PostGIS, RabbitMQ, and NGINX, with all major browsers supported. A demo can be found at https://demo.metadata.maine-edna.org/.Supplementary information Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Application to monitoring a SNes control with Ruby in Windows, Linux Ubuntu, OS X El Capitan, and Raspbian GNU/Linux 10

This paper shows the development of a Ruby application to detect the actions carried out on an USB control, with the goal of achieving the coding of multiplatform application that can be used as a basis for the creation of projects with larger scope and impact in this fiel, such as videogame development, and device control systems. The ‘prototype models’ methodology was the approach for this project. In the first prototype a CLI program was written that prints out messages in the terminal depending on the buttons that are simulated based on the keys pressed on the keyboard, and so on until the end of the project, in which a final application is delivered, in compliance with the necessary tests. This application code was published in a GITLAB repository for reference and future use. The application was developed to be compatible with Windows, Linux, macOS, and Raspbian operating systems to test Ruby portability.

A novel image cryptosystem using Gray code, quantum walks, and Henon map for cloud applications

Cloud computing plays a vital task in our daily lives, in which an enormous amount of data is stored daily on cloud storage. The highest priority for cloud data storage is guaranteeing the security of confidential data. The security of confidential data can be realised through utilising one of the cryptographic mechanisms including encryption and data hiding. With the rapid development for the realization of quantum computers, modern cryptosystems may be cracked including cloud systems. Accordingly, it is a crucial task for achieving confidentiality of data stored on cloud storage before the availability of quantum computers. Therefore, this study aims to utilise one of the quantum computational models, as a quantum-inspired system, to layout a new data confidentiality technique that can be applied in digital devices to have the capability for resisting the potential attacks from quantum and digital computers. In this paper, a new image security algorithm for real-time cloud applications using Gray code, quantum walks (QW), and Henon map is proposed. In the proposed image cryptosystem, the generated key streams from QW and Henon map is related to the plain image with high sensitivity of slight bit changes on the plain image. The outcomes based on deep analysis proves that the presented algorithm is efficient with high security for real-time application.

Strengthening Prosperity and Peace through Code of Ethics Embedded Responsible Tourism: How Far It Works for Trekking Porters (deprived workforce) in Nepal?

In addition to pledging economic prosperity, the existing body of knowledge reveals that tourism can bring and accelerate peace. The trek/tour operators can play an important role in this process through the application Code of Ethics (CoE) embedded responsible tourism. However, trekking porters' case in Nepal is not only under researched but also against the above set assumption. In this context, the key focuses of this article is to assess the existing CoE embedded responsible tourism policies and practices and examine the key items related with porters' portering profession.&#x0D; Methodologically, this research has utilized mixed information (qualitative and quantitative). Within the constructivist research paradigm, forty trek operators which employee trekking porters, were surveyed. Additionally, seven trekking porters (as the center actor of this research) and few leaders of tourism workers' unions were also interviewed. The findings reveal that CoEs emerge as valuable basis for assuring prosperity and peace. It finds improvements on key measuring items like porters' minimum wages, carrying loads, safety gears and clothes, and emergency evacuation in the management of trek operators but with sporadic lapses too. The existing tourism policies and strategies are found highlighting the need of CoEs but silent on the nitty-gritty of such ethics. This paper recommends for recruitments of all porters' through policy led establishment of a national Porter Referral Center (PRC) and all jobs assignments through mandatory job contracts. Finally, it necessitates for both ethics and regulation to go hand in hand for making tourism a true peace builder.

Covidscreen: a web app and R Package for assessing asymptomatic COVID-19 testing strategies

BackgroundCOVID-19 has caused over 305 million infections and nearly 5.5 million deaths globally. With complete eradication unlikely, organizations will need to evaluate their risk and the benefits of mitigation strategies, including the effects of regular asymptomatic testing. We developed a web application and R package that provides estimates and visualizations to aid the assessment of organizational infection risk and testing benefits to facilitate decision-making, which combines internal and community information with malleable assumptions.ResultsOur web application, covidscreen, presents estimated values of risk metrics in an intuitive graphical format. It shows the current expected number of active, primarily community-acquired infections among employees in an organization. It calculates and explains the absolute and relative risk reduction of an intervention, relative to the baseline scenario, and shows the value of testing vaccinated and unvaccinated employees. In addition, the web interface allows users to profile risk over a chosen range of input values. The performance and output are illustrated using simulations and a real-world example from the employee testing program of a pediatric oncology specialty hospital.ConclusionsAs the COVID-19 pandemic continues to evolve, covidscreen can assist organizations in making informed decisions about whether to incorporate covid test based screening as part of their on-campus risk-mitigation strategy. The web application, R package, and source code are freely available online (see “Availability of data and materials”).

Design of a High-Speed OFDM-SAC-OCDMA-Based FSO System Using EDW Codes for Supporting 5G Data Services and Smart City Applications

A novel free space optics (FSO) system is introduced in this article by combining orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) with spectral amplitude coding optical code division multiple access (SAC-OCDMA) to be implemented in 5G technology and smart cities. Enhanced double-weight (EDW) codes are used as signature codes, while for the detection technique, single photodiode detection (SPD) is applied for the SAC-OCDMA system. OFDM with a four-quadrature amplitude modulation (4-QAM) scheme is assigned to the three users in the SAC-OCDMA system, each carrying 15 Gbps. Adverse weather conditions, such as clear, fog, haze, rain, and dust storm, that affect the FSO channel are considered. The performance of the proposed system is evaluated in terms of log of bit error rate and received power at different propagation distances. The simulation results show successful transmission of 3 × 15 Gbps with a propagation range of 3.45 km under clear air and 1.316, 1.045, and 0.7 km under rain conditions (light, medium, and heavy rain) with a received power of −12.6 dBm. As for haze conditions, the range and received power are 2.391 km with −13 dBm for low haze, 1.591 km with −12.7 dBm for medium haze, and 1.025 km with −12.6 dBm for heavy haze. The range is reduced and becomes 1.085, 0.784, and 0.645 km under fog conditions (light, medium, and heavy fog) with −12.6 dBm received power. Furthermore, the system achieved a range of 0.681, 0.232, and 0.102 km under dust conditions (light, medium, and heavy dust) with a received power of −16 dBm.