Apple Integrated Pest Management Research Articles

Adoption of Organophosphate Alternatives in Washington Apple IPM Programs: Survey Evidence From Pest Management Consultants and Growers

Azinphos-methyl (AZM) has been the primary insecticide used to fight codling moth ( Cydia pomonella L.) in apple production in the United States since the late 1960s. In 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency decided to phase out AZM over a 6-year period. This regulatory action sparked educational efforts at Washington State University to promote organophosphate (OP) alternatives within apple integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Drawing on the diffusion of innovations framework and surveys of Washington State pest management consultants and apple growers, we explore trends in the recommendation and use of OP insecticides, OP alternatives, and IPM practices for codling moth management. The transition prompted by the AZM phaseout consisted of a switch from OP insecticides to OP alternatives within existing IPM programs without major change in the use of IPM practices themselves. We also discuss the importance of innovation-decision type (authority vs. optional), perceived innovation characteristics, communication channels, and change agents' promotion efforts in the adoption and diffusion of OP alternatives within apple IPM programs. This case study illustrates how multiple drivers (regulatory, technological, and educational) can lead to widespread industry change and how educational outreach programs seeking to influence adoption behavior can benefit from an understanding of preferred communication channels and perceptions of innovation attributes.

The importance of forecasting and warning systems in implementation of integrated pest management in apple orchards in Turkey*

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been widely implemented in apple orchards in various regions of Turkey. Between 1995 and 1999, in Central Anatolia and the Aegean Region, apple scab (Venturia inequalis) and codling moth (Cydia pomonella) were key pests, and implementation of pest control was based on forecasting and warning systems. During the project, orchards in which IPM was implemented and in which farmers applied conventional practices were compared. In nine provinces in which IPM projects were carried out in 1999, the damage due to codling moth was 0–1.3% in IPM orchards while it was 0.4–21.8% in nearby non‐IPM orchards. It is clear that damage did not reach the acceptable threshold level of 2% in any of the IPM orchards, while damage was much higher than the threshold in conventionally‐farmed orchards. The number of fungicide applications against apple scab decreased to 5–6 applications from 10–15 applications in the Eğirdir district of the Isparta Province in 1996 as a result of IPM implementation. No insecticides were applied against codling moth in IPM orchards in the Nigde Province in 1998 and 1999 because population levels of the pest were low and under the economic threshold. Apple producers received training and 1200 producers from Central Anatolia became experts in IPM for their own orchards, learning to make appropriate decisions about pest control. The Apple IPM Guideline was prepared and disseminated. In Turkey modern equipment for forecasting and warning systems was employed and, in the last decade, forecasting and warning networks have been improved. Computer‐based systems have increased the speed and accuracy of forecasting as well as decreasing its costs. A computerized national forecasting network in apple orchards now transmits data from the field to system headquarters automatically. The national forecasting network has been expanded and covered 12 208 800 apple trees in 34 provinces in 2006, using 115 electronic forecasting and warning stations.

Novel life stage targets against plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), in apple integrated pest management

In this study the authors employed the plant-insect-chemistry (PIC) triad to investigate two novel life stage targets against the plum curculio (PC), Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), in apple integrated pest management (IPM). Laboratory treated apple bioassays were used to determine if the insect growth regulator (IGR) insecticides novaluron and tebufenozide have physiological effects on PC larvae following adult exposure. Curative activity bioassays were conducted for IGR, neonicotinoid, oxidiazine and organophosphate insecticides on PC larvae post-infestation, and fruit penetration profiles of insecticides were developed. The results revealed that novaluron exhibits activity on PC larvae via vertical transmission following exposure of mated females to treated substrate. Surface treatments of azinphos-methyl, thiacloprid and thiamethoxam to preinfested fruit resulted in significant reductions in larval emergence. For all compounds, 50% or more of the total recovered active ingredient was from apple skin, and for azinphos-methyl, indoxacarb and thiamethoxam it was greater than 80%. For azinphos-methyl, novaluron, methoxyfenozide and thiacloprid, however, active ingredient was recovered from every section of the apple, from skin to core. Implications for twenty-first century IPM are discussed.

Role of neonicotinyl insecticides in Washington apple integrated pest management. Part I. Control of lepidopteran pests

Three neonicotinyl insecticides, acetamiprid, thiacloprid and clothianidin, were evaluated for their impact on four species of lepidopteran pests of apple in Washington, the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), the Pandemis leafroller, Pandemis pyrusana Kearfott, and the obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris), and Lacanobia subjuncta (Grote & Robinson). None of the neonicotinyl insecticides demonstrated sufficient activity against P. pyrusana, C. rosaceana, or L. subjuncta to warrant field trials. Conversely, all had some activity against one or more stages of C. pomonella. Acetamiprid was highly toxic to larvae in laboratory bioassays, and had relatively long activity of field-aged residues (21 days). It also showed some toxicity to C. pomonella eggs (via topical exposure) and adults. Acetamiprid provided the highest level of fruit protection from C. pomonella attack in field trials conducted over five years in experimental orchards with extremely high codling moth pressure. Thiacloprid performed similarly in bioassays, but fruit protection in field trials was slightly lower than acetamiprid. Clothianidin showed moderate to high toxicity in bioassays, depending on the C. pomonella stage tested, but poor fruit protection from attack in field trials. None of the neonicotinyl insecticides were as toxic to larvae or effective in protecting fruit as the current standard organophosphate insecticide used for C. pomonella control, azinphosmethyl. However, both acetamiprid and thiacloprid should provide acceptable levels of C. pomonella control in commercial orchards where densities are much lower than in the experimental orchards used for our trials. The advantages and disadvantages of the neonicotinyl insecticides as replacements for the organophosphate insecticides and their role in a pest management system for Washington apple orchards are discussed.MFR Maximum field rate

Role of neonicotinyl insecticides in Washington apple integrated pest management. Part II. Nontarget effects on integrated mite control

The effect of neonicotinyl insecticides on integrated mite control in Washington apple was examined from 0 In a series of 20 field trials (54 treatments) designed primarily to look at efficacy against the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, nearly half of the treatments using four or more applications of acetamiprid had peak mite densities exceeding the economic threshold of 5 mites per leaf. Overall, acetamiprid treatments had 4.6-fold higher mite densities than the standard organophosphate insecticide treatment. Of the treatments with high mite populations, Panonychus ulmi, the European red mite, and Tetranychus urticae, the twospotted spider mite, were the dominant species in roughly equal numbers of cases. Only 11.1% of the thiacloprid treatments exceeded 5 mites per leaf; these experimental treatments included eight applications, whereas the current label restricts the number of applications at the rate for C. pomonella to two applications. One out of six clothianidin treatments caused a significantly higher mite density than the standard treatment; however, this material appeared to suppress predatory mites. Neonicotinyl insecticides did not eliminate predatory mites, but they inhibited their ability to respond normally to increasing prey populations. In field trials designed specifically to examine mite population densities where neonicotinyl insecticides were used, significantly higher levels of tetranychid mites occurred in one or more acetamiprid treatments (one, two or four applications) in five out of six trials. In the sixth trial (in a commercial orchard), only two acetamiprid applications were made, and mite populations were low in all treatments. While elevated mite densities were more likely to occur with four applications, in one case it occurred following a single application. The predominant tetranychid mite species (either P. ulmi or T. urticae) varied from trial to trial; however, there was no apparent bias regarding stimulation of the two species. Horticultural mineral oil was used with acetamiprid in some trials in an attempt to mitigate mite outbreaks. However, the addition of oil did not counteract the tendency of acetamiprid to increase tetranychid mite populations, and in one trial, had a negative effect on predatory mite densities. Seasonal tetranychid mite density was positively related to the total grams AI (or number of applications) of acetamiprid, thus reducing the number of applications per season should lower the probability of mite outbreaks.AI active ingredient CMD cumulative mite days

Role of neonicotinyl insecticides in Washington apple integrated pest management. Part II. Nontarget effects on integrated mite control

The effect of neonicotinyl insecticides on integrated mite control in Washington apple was examined from 0 In a series of 20 field trials (54 treatments) designed primarily to look at efficacy against the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, nearly half of the treatments using four or more applications of acetamiprid had peak mite densities exceeding the economic threshold of 5 mites per leaf. Overall, acetamiprid treatments had 4.6-fold higher mite densities than the standard organophosphate insecticide treatment. Of the treatments with high mite populations, Panonychus ulmi, the European red mite, and Tetranychus urticae, the twospotted spider mite, were the dominant species in roughly equal numbers of cases. Only 11.1% of the thiacloprid treatments exceeded 5 mites per leaf; these experimental treatments included eight applications, whereas the current label restricts the number of applications at the rate for C. pomonella to two applications. One out of six clothianidin treatments caused a significantly higher mite density than the standard treatment; however, this material appeared to suppress predatory mites. Neonicotinyl insecticides did not eliminate predatory mites, but they inhibited their ability to respond normally to increasing prey populations. In field trials designed specifically to examine mite population densities where neonicotinyl insecticides were used, significantly higher levels of tetranychid mites occurred in one or more acetamiprid treatments (one, two or four applications) in five out of six trials. In the sixth trial (in a commercial orchard), only two acetamiprid applications were made, and mite populations were low in all treatments. While elevated mite densities were more likely to occur with four applications, in one case it occurred following a single application. The predominant tetranychid mite species (either P. ulmi or T. urticae) varied from trial to trial; however, there was no apparent bias regarding stimulation of the two species. Horticultural mineral oil was used with acetamiprid in some trials in an attempt to mitigate mite outbreaks. However, the addition of oil did not counteract the tendency of acetamiprid to increase tetranychid mite populations, and in one trial, had a negative effect on predatory mite densities. Seasonal tetranychid mite density was positively related to the total grams AI (or number of applications) of acetamiprid, thus reducing the number of applications per season should lower the probability of mite outbreaks.

Current status of IPM in apple orchards

Apple integrated pest management (IPM) research and the development of apple IPM programs through transfer technology activities of Extension and Advisory personnel and Crop Consultants has been intense and continuous for over 20 years, and current apple IPM programs vary largely from one country to another and even in different regions within a country. Factors that account for these differences include the number of major and minor pests, available technology, commitment to IPM approach, and financial and personnel support for IPM research, demonstration, and implementation. This short review discusses the basic approaches for managing arthropod pests and pathogens included in current apple IPM programs.

Arthropod abundance in an Australian apple orchard under mating disruption and supplementary insecticide treatments for codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The impacts of three codling moth management strategies (i, mating disruption alone; ii, mating disruption plus azinphos‐methyl; iii, mating disruption plus fenoxycarb) on some secondary pests and their natural enemies in an apple orchard were compared over two growing seasons: 1993/1994 and 1994/1995. In the absence of azinphos‐methyl (strategies i and iii), two‐spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) was controlled by Typhlodromus occidentalis and populations of generalist predators (e.g. ladybirds, lacewings and earwigs) increased. The populations of a parasitoid of woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum), Aphelinus mali, also increased but not enough to provide adequate control of the aphid. Combined damage caused by lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana), budworms (Helicoverpa spp.) and San José scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) was significantly higher in the absence of azinphos‐methyl in 1994/1995. Beneficial insect populations were not suppressed by fenoxycarb. In 1994/1995, mating disruption plus fenoxycarb produced better control of E. postvittana than mating disruption alone. During transition to an apple integrated pest management program based on codling moth mating disruption, fenoxycarb was shown to be less disruptive to any natural control of secondary pests than azinphos‐methyl.

Difficulties in measuring adoption of apple IPM: A case study

This research investigates the process of measuring integrated pest management (IPM) and the implications of particular measurement in understanding IPM adoption. Data collected from apple growers in New York State in 1991 were used to develop a measurement of IPM adoption based on nine subscales combining 35 IPM components. Three factors or dimensions of IPM were found: scouting/monitoring, cultural controls and biological controls. Scouting and monitoring practices were associated with beliefs about costs and benefits of IPM; the use of cultural controls was related to economic factors, and the use of biological controls was negatively related to perceived credibility of chemical fieldmen.

Integrated Pest Management in European Apple Orchards

Research on integrated pest management (IPM) in apple orchards has generated wealth of literature worldwide, but comprehensIve reviews are rare (60, 121, 183). Apple IPM, a multidisciplinary, ecological approach to the management of pest populations, which uses variety of control tactics compatibly in single pest management system (182, p. 41), is difficult to describe on paper. The major reason is the great complexity and geographic variability of the perennial apple orchard ecosystem (105, 173, 210). Specialist reviews (89, 115, 151, 179, 180, 199) often deal with various pome fruit pests, but they usually emphasize the advancement of knowledge instead of practical integration of that knowledge. This review describes recent advances in European apple IPM, with the emphasis on the promotion of biological pest control. To be clear, I have chosen both scene and perspective. The scene is the high density apple orchard, the perspective the hierarchical appreciation of natural enemies.

Apple IPM Implementation in North America

It was 1 942 and World War II was in progress. In Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia, the apple-growing industry was hit by export restrictions. Emergency measures had to be taken to reduce production costs to ensure survival of the industry. Crop protection scientists rapidly developed a pest control program that deemphasized costly pesticides (122). Harmonized control relied on more natural pest population regulation and limited the use of selective insecti­ cides such as ryania, nicotine, and lead arsenate. Fruit infestation increased little-from 0--2% to ca 5% at harvest, and codling moth Cydia pomonella and various leafrollers were controlled by pesticides and natural controls. Biologi­ cal agents controlled most secondary pests (e.g. mites and aphids). Apple maggot (Rhagoietis pomonella) was an occasional problem, but it was control­ led by selective insecticides. Growers changed to the new pest control system, which saved the industry. This description of the adoption of the first major apple integrated pest management (IPM) program in North America tells us much about im­ plementing change. When a crisis develops and innovation is apparent , adop­ tion of new technology will proceed. In Nova Scotia, there were many econom­ ic, institutional, and political incentives to adopt the new IPM approach even though it was a radical departure from the previous technological state. Rem­ nants of the Nova Scotian IPM program still exist in the province's pest control programs ( 107), although many Nova Scotian growers eventually returned to intensive, high pesticide use.

Inheritance and Persistence of Permethrin Resistance in the Predatory Mite, Amblyseius fallacis1 (Acarina: Phytoseiidae)

Genetic analysis of permethrin resistance in the predatory mite, Amblyseius fallacis , indicated a polygenic, recessive basis for resistance. In the laboratory, with and without the immigration of resistant biotypes, permethrin resistance did not decline in mites left untreated over 25 generations. This was comparable to the stability of azinphosmethyl resistance in this same strain. In the field when influenced by large immigrant populations of susceptible biotypes, permethrin-resistant predators persisted initially after a permethrin spray applied in an apple orchard during the early growing season, but by late fall they were flooded out and resistance was diminished through hybridization. The implications of these results for management of S-P-resistant A. fallacis in apple integrated pest management systems are discussed.