Appl Psychol Research Articles

Item Response Models for Forced-Choice Questionnaires: A Common Framework.

In forced-choice questionnaires, respondents have to make choices between two or more items presented at the same time. Several IRT models have been developed to link respondent choices to underlying psychological attributes, including the recent MUPP (Stark et al. in Appl Psychol Meas 29:184-203, 2005) and Thurstonian IRT (Brown and Maydeu-Olivares in Educ Psychol Meas 71:460-502, 2011) models. In the present article, a common framework is proposed that describes forced-choice models along three axes: (1) the forced-choice format used; (2) the measurement model for the relationships between items and psychological attributes they measure; and (3) the decision model for choice behavior. Using the framework, fundamental properties of forced-choice measurement of individual differences are considered. It is shown that the scale origin for the attributes is generally identified in questionnaires using either unidimensional or multidimensional comparisons. Both dominance and ideal point models can be used to provide accurate forced-choice measurement; and the rules governing accurate person score estimation with these models are remarkably similar.

HALF THE SKY: The Moderating Role of Cultural Collectivism in Job Turnover Among Chinese Female Workers

The present study examines how collectivism, an important cultural value, plays a moderating role in the association between job attitudes (job satisfaction and organizational commitment) and actual turnover in a sample of 781 Chinese female workers. Results show that collectivism moderates the relationships between job attitude variables and turnover intention. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are more powerful in predicting turnover intention when levels of collectivism are high rather than low. However, collectivism only moderates the mediation of turnover intention in the relationship between job satisfaction and actual turnover. The study deepens the understanding of the moderating effect of cultural values in organizational behavioral outcomes as Taras et al. (J Appl Psychol 95:405–439, 2010) suggest. Also discussed are the practical implications on how to control the voluntary termination of female laborers who constitute an important part in Chinese manufacturing.

Lord-Wingersky Algorithm Version 2.0 for Hierarchical Item Factor Models with Applications in Test Scoring, Scale Alignment, and Model Fit Testing.

Lord and Wingersky's (Appl Psychol Meas 8:453-461, 1984) recursive algorithm for creating summed score based likelihoods and posteriors has a proven track record in unidimensional item response theory (IRT) applications. Extending the recursive algorithm to handle multidimensionality is relatively simple, especially with fixed quadrature because the recursions can be defined on a grid formed by direct products of quadrature points. However, the increase in computational burden remains exponential in the number of dimensions, making the implementation of the recursive algorithm cumbersome for truly high-dimensional models. In this paper, a dimension reduction method that is specific to the Lord-Wingersky recursions is developed. This method can take advantage of the restrictions implied by hierarchical item factor models, e.g., the bifactor model, the testlet model, or the two-tier model, such that a version of the Lord-Wingersky recursive algorithm can operate on a dramatically reduced set of quadrature points. For instance, in a bifactor model, the dimension of integration is always equal to 2, regardless of the number of factors. The new algorithm not only provides an effective mechanism to produce summed score to IRT scaled score translation tables properly adjusted for residual dependence, but leads to new applications in test scoring, linking, and model fit checking as well. Simulated and empirical examples are used to illustrate the new applications.

Bicultural stress, identity formation, and alcohol expectancies and misuse in Hispanic adolescents: a developmental approach.

Hispanic immigrant youth engage in increased health risk behaviors, such as alcohol misuse, due in part to being confronted with acculturative stress in addition to facing major normative developmental challenges, such as identity consolidation (Berry et al. in Appl Psychol 55:303-332, 2006). Using a developmental psychopathology framework, in the present study we examined the effect of bicultural stress on alcohol misuse among immigrated Hispanic adolescents, indirectly through trajectories of identity formation and alcohol expectancies. Our sample consisted of 302 recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents (53% male; Mage=14.5 at baseline) who were interviewed every 6months for 3years. Bivariate growth curve modeling was used to examine the influence of initial early bicultural stress on later alcohol misuse via change in identity development (i.e., coherence and confusion) and subsequent growth in cognitive alcohol expectancies. Findings revealed that initial levels and growth of identity coherence were not significantly associated with either bicultural stress or tension reduction (TR) alcohol expectancies. Multiple mediation analyses indicated that the effect of bicultural stress at time 1 on the frequency of being drunk at time 6 was mediated via high initial levels of identity confusion, followed by growth in risky TR expectancies (T4-T6). A developmental approach to the genesis of alcohol use problems in immigrant youth is discussed.

Can Passion be Polyamorous? The Impact of Having Multiple Passions on Subjective Well-Being and Momentary Emotions

Having a harmonious passion (HP) can contribute to overall subjective well-being (Philippe et al. in Appl Psychol Health Well Being 1:3–22, 2009). We examined if people who had two passions in life reported even higher levels of well-being, and tested if these relationships depended on the extent to which the passions were harmonious or obsessive (OP). Undergraduates (N = 1,218) completed measures of HP and OP for their favorite and second favorite activities, along with assessments of well-being. In a follow-up study, a subsample of students (N = 62) who reported having an HP for one activity but an OP for another participated in an experiment in which we measured momentary emotions after priming either their HP, OP or a control activity. We found that students with at least one HP reported higher levels of well-being compared to those without an HP, and those with two HPs reported higher levels of well-being compared to those with only one HP, independent of the total time spent in passionate activities. In the follow-up study, participants’ levels of momentary positive and negative affect depended on whether their HP or OP was primed. These results suggest that, rather than introducing conflict or dividing a fixed sum of activity-related potential, having two HPs creates novel opportunities for subjective well-being.

The Role of Overall Organizational Justice Perceptions Within the Four-Dimensional Framework

Given the recent interest in a global model of organizational justice, the purpose of the present paper is to examine the role of overall justice within Colquitt’s (J Appl Psychol 86:386–400, 2001) four-dimensional framework. In two studies (using a student and professional sample), confirmatory factor analysis results supported a five-factor model of justice. Analyses demonstrated that overall justice is likely an independent construct, can be predicted from the facet measures of justice, and is not a second-order hierarchical construct. In both studies, structural equation modeling indicated that overall justice partially mediated the relationship between the four dimensions of justice and both global and specific outcomes examined by Colquitt (2001) and Ambrose and Schminke (J Appl Psychol 94:491–500, 2009), respectively. Taken together, this research demonstrates that there is a need for both overall justice and the four justice dimensions in comprehensive models of organizational justice. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Medical students with low self-efficacy bolstered by calling to medical speciality

This study was performed to understand the degree to which medical students’ self-efficacy (SE) moderates the influence of calling on students’ speciality commitment, emphasizing the need to understand variables that predict primary care specialization. The researchers hypothesized that students who perceived their career as a calling would be more committed to their speciality, especially when students had high SE. Medical students (Years 1–4; N = 152) completed an online survey to rate their calling, speciality commitment, and SE. Calling was measured by the Brief Calling scale (Dik et al., J Career Assess 20:242–263, 2012), while speciality choice was measured by Hollenbeck et al. (J Appl Psychol 74:18–23, 1989) measure of commitment. SE was measured by the Jerusalem and Schwarzer's general SE scale (see Scholz et al., Eur J Psychol Assess 18:242–51, 2002). Calling (r = 0.24, p < 0.01) and SE (r = 0.20, p < 0.05) were found to moderately correlate with speciality commitment, thus emphasizing the possibility that they may have an interaction. The interaction of calling and SE significantly predicted speciality commitment (β = −0.20, t(148) = −2.55, p < 0.05) and explained a significant proportion of variance in speciality commitment (R 2 = 0.12, F(3, 148) = 6.875, p < 0.001). Students with a high presence of calling may have high speciality commitment, despite low SE.

Proactive Responding to Anticipated Discrimination Based on Chronic Illness: Double-Edged Sword?

Purpose Proactive strategies for avoiding stigmatization may prevent work-related discrimination (Singletary and Hebl J Appl Psychol 94:797–805, 2009), yet these strategies may also cause strain in the stigmatized. We tested a model in which previous workplace discrimination experiences and anticipated future workplace discrimination related to proactive responses (compensatory behaviors and concealing behaviors), which, in turn, related to job tension.

Factorial Structure of the Spanish Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scales in HIV Patients

The factor structure of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff in Appl Psychol Meas 1(3):385-401, 1977) was examined in two independent samples of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients. The first sample, composed of HIV patients undergoing hospital follow-up, was used to explore the factor structure of the CES-D. The second sample, composed of HIV patients confined in prison, was used to confirm the factor structure previously found. In both samples the best structure accounting for data was three 1st-order factors with a general 2nd-order factor of depression. We found a strong factorial invariance of this structure across samples, pointing out a high consistency of results in HIV patients. Additionally, the cut-off score for depression screening in this population was studied.

A Cultural Analysis of China’s Scientific Brain Drain: the Case of Chinese Immigrant Scientists in Canadian Academia

While the booming market and policy incentives of China are reversing the pattern of talent flow across the Pacific, a large proportion of the mainland Chinese immigrant scientists currently in Canadian academia have decided not to return home; meanwhile, their interactions with China in terms of brain circulation are not extensive overall. This study attempts to explore the key factors for the paradox of China’s scientific brain drain through the lens of culture, drawing on data mainly from in-depth interviews with 14 mainland Chinese immigrant scientists in Canadian academia. The theoretical framework derives from the models of cultural negotiation (Sakamoto 2001) and bidimensional acculturation (Berry, Appl Psychol 46: 5–34, 1997). Data analysis reveals that cultural factors override everything else in shaping the leave–stay decision and brain exchange behavior of these Chinese scientists, who have gone through a cultural negotiation and construction process. With a transformed perspective, these academic migrants hold firmly the new culture’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors; therefore, the work styles, notions, and ethics of their counterparts in China have cultural limitations and are incongruent with their practice in Canada. Meanwhile, they have been significantly influenced by Chinese cultural values, notably group orientation, hierarchy loving, self-abasement, harmony seeking, face saving, etc. The findings should shed some light on public policies aiming to realize the full value of top talents for the benefits of China, Canada, and beyond.

How Dare to Demand This from Volunteers! The Impact of Illegitimate Tasks

The present study examined the effect of illegitimate tasks (Semmer et al. Appl Psychol Int Rev 59:70–96, 2010) within the volunteer context. A total of 191 Red Cross volunteers were surveyed to reveal the impact of unreasonable and unnecessary tasks on the volunteers’ work engagement and intent to remain at the non-profit organization (NPO). To shed light on the process through which illegitimate tasks affect outcomes, the mediating role of self-determined motivation was explored. Furthermore, the volunteers’ role orientation was assumed to moderate the relationship between illegitimate tasks and outcomes. The results showed that unreasonable tasks directly decreased the volunteers’ intent to remain. Unnecessary tasks, in contrast, had a more subtle effect in that they reduced the self-determined motivation of volunteers. Also, evidence was found for the moderating influence of the volunteers’ role orientation: Whereas unreasonable tasks were equally harmful for both groups, unnecessary tasks more strongly affected those volunteers who expressed more organizational ownership.

The Role of Range Restriction and Criterion Contamination in Assessing Differential Validity by Race/Ethnicity

Berry et al.’s (J Appl Psychol 96:881–906, 2011) meta-analysis of cognitive ability test validity data across employment, college admissions, and military domains demonstrated that validity is lower for Black and Hispanic subgroups than for Asian and White subgroups. However, Berry et al. relied on observed test-criterion correlations and it is therefore not clear whether validity differences generalize beyond observed validities. The present study investigates the roles that range restriction and criterion contamination play in differential validity. A large dataset (N > 140,000) containing SAT scores and college grades of Asian, Black, Hispanic, and White test takers was used. Within-race corrections for multivariate range restriction were applied. Differential validity analyses were carried out using freshman GPA versus individual course grades as criteria to control for the contaminating influence of individual differences between students in course choice. Observed validities underestimated the magnitude of validity differences between subgroups relative to when range restriction and criterion contamination were controlled. Analyses also demonstrate that validity differences would translate to larger regression slope differences (i.e., differential prediction). Subgroup differences in range restriction and/or individual differences in course choice cannot account for lower validity of the SAT for Black and Hispanic subgroups. Controlling for these factors increased subgroup validity differences. Future research must look to other explanations for subgroup validity differences. The present study is the first differential validity study to simultaneously control for range restriction and individual differences in course choice, and answers a call to investigate potential causes of differential validity.

A Social Cognitive Perspective on the Relationships Between Ethics Education, Moral Attentiveness, and PRESOR

This research examines the relationships between education in business ethics, Reynolds’s (J Appl Psychol 93:1027–1041, 2008) “moral attentiveness” construct, or the extent to which individuals chronically perceive and reflect on morality and moral elements in their experiences, and Singhapakdi et al.’s (J Bus Ethics 15:1131–1140, 1996) measure of perceptions of the role of ethics and social responsibility (PRESOR). Education in business ethics was found to be positively associated with the two identified factors of moral attentiveness, “reflective” and “perceptual” moral attentiveness, and with the PRESOR “stakeholder view” factor. Also, reflective moral attentiveness was found to act as a mediator in the relationship between education in business ethics and the PRESOR stakeholder view factor. Evidence of gender and social desirability bias effects was also found. The implications of these relationships and social cognitive theory for improved understanding of the mechanisms by which a variety of variables have their effects on PRESOR in business are discussed.

Linking item parameters to a base scale

This paper compares three methods of item calibration—concurrent calibration, separate calibration with linking, and fixed item parameter calibration—that are frequently used for linking item parameters to a base scale. Concurrent and separate calibrations were implemented using BILOG-MG. The Stocking and Lord in Appl Psychol Measure 7:201–210, (1983) characteristic curve method of parameter linking was used in conjunction with separate calibration. The fixed item parameter calibration (FIPC) method was implemented using both BILOG-MG and PARSCALE because the method is carried out differently by the two programs. Both programs use multiple EM cycles, but BILOG-MG does not update the prior ability distribution during FIPC calibration, whereas PARSCALE updates the prior ability distribution multiple times. The methods were compared using simulations based on actual testing program data, and results were evaluated in terms of recovery of the underlying ability distributions, the item characteristic curves, and the test characteristic curves. Factors manipulated in the simulations were sample size, ability distributions, and numbers of common (or fixed) items. The results for concurrent calibration and separate calibration with linking were comparable, and both methods showed good recovery results for all conditions. Between the two fixed item parameter calibration procedures, only the appropriate use of PARSCALE consistently provided item parameter linking results similar to those of the other two methods.

Factor structure of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale in Taiwanese adolescents

BackgroundThe original study of Radloff (Appl Psychol Meas. 1977. 1:385-401) on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) indicated a 4-factor model in the adult population. However, the factor structure of the CES-D in Asian adolescents has not been extensively validated. The aim of this study was to examine the factor structure of the Chinese version of the CES-D in a large representative Taiwanese adolescent population. MethodA total of 10 116 adolescents completed the Chinese version of the CES-D. We used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the adequacy of 5 models of the factor structure in adolescents who were divided into 4 groups by sex and age. We also enrolled the variables of suicide tendency, insomnia, and peer relationships into the confirmatory factor analysis to examine the factor structure of the CES-D and examined the correlations between the CES-D factors and these variables. ResultsThe results of this study indicated that the four-factor model (depressed affect, somatic symptoms, interpersonal problems, and positive affect) had the highest validity in Taiwanese adolescents. We also found that although the 4 factors of the CES-D were correlated with each other, their correlations with suicide tendency, insomnia, and peer relationships were different. ConclusionsThis study supported the usefulness of the Chinese version of the CES-D as a tool to understand the concept of depression in Taiwanese adolescents.

A Mediator Model of Sunscreen Use: A Longitudinal Analysis of Social-Cognitive Predictors and Mediators

Sun safety behaviors to prevent skin cancer, such as sunscreen use, are difficult to adopt and maintain. Most social-cognitive theories assume that the intention to change a behavior is the best predictor of actual change. But unforeseen barriers emerge, or people give in to temptations, such as getting a tan despite their initial good intentions. The Health Action Process Approach proposed by Schwarzer (Appl Psychol 57:1-29, 1) is used to explore the self-regulatory mechanisms of sunscreen use. An international longitudinal survey was conducted with 524 individuals. Intentions, positive outcome expectancies, distal self-efficacy, and risk perception were assessed at time 1, whereas intention, planning, and proximal self-efficacy were measured 2 weeks later at time 2. Sunscreen use was reported at 3-month follow-up (time 3). A structural equation model fit the data well. Positive outcome expectancies, risk perception, and self-efficacy predicted the behavioral intention. Self-efficacy and planning predicted sunscreen use, and planning mediated the relation between intended and performed sunscreen use. The findings contribute to the understanding of psychological mechanisms in health behavior change. They also point to the particular role of mediator variables in the context of sun protection behaviors, which may have implications for designing skin cancer preventive interventions.

The Role of Ethical Ideology in Reactions to Injustice

Forsyth (J Pers Soc Psychol 39(1):175–184, 1980) argued that ethical ideology includes the two orthogonal dimensions of relativism and idealism. Relativists determine morality by looking at the complexities of the situation rather than relying on universal moral rules, while idealists believe that positive consequences can always be obtained without harming others. This study examined the role of ethical ideology as a moderator between justice and constructive and deviant reactions to injustice. Students with work experience (N = 200) completed Bennett and Robinson’s (J Appl Psychol 85(3):349–360, 2000) measure of Workplace Deviance, Gill’s (Reactions to injustice: Development and validation of a measure. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, 2005) Reactions to Injustice measure, and the Ethics Position Questionnaire (Forsyth, 1980), and provided ratings of justice in their own workplace. Hierarchical regressions revealed a significant main effect of idealism on deviance and constructive behaviors, and three-way interactions between idealism, relativism, and some types of justice. These findings suggest that ethical ideology plays a significant role in predicting responses to injustice.

Do Managers Use Feedback Seeking as a Strategy to Regulate Demands–Abilities Misfit? The Moderating Role of Implicit Person Theory

This study examined to what extent managers who hold an incremental implicit person theory (i.e., believe that personal attributes are relatively malleable) rely on proactive strategies to address imbalances between demands and abilities. Data were collected from a convenient sample of managers in 12 organizations in Spain and Belgium (N = 303). Given the well-known shortcomings of traditional congruence measures, we conducted polynomial regression. Results indicated that implicit person theory was a significant moderator of the relationship between demands–abilities (D–A) fit and feedback seeking for two out of three task dimensions. Specifically, incremental theorists sought feedback to a great extent when misfit occurred between low to moderate demands and abilities. The current study found preliminary evidence for a proactive framework of person–job misfit which could be used to guide future research. The results of this study suggest the use of self-persuasion techniques to influence managers’ incremental person theory (Heslin et al., J Appl Psychol 90:842–856, 2005). Research on person–environment fit is often guided by the assumption that individuals react negatively to misfit leading to maladaptive outcomes. However, this study tested a different perspective on P–E misfit by extending initial work (i.e., Simmering et al., J Appl Psychol 88:954–963, 2003) on the positive relationship between P–E misfit and proactive behavior.

The mediating role of self-criticism and dependency in the association between perceptions of maternal caring and depressive symptoms

This study examined a theoretically based mediation model including participants' perceptions of early relationships with their mother, self-criticism, dependency, and current depressive symptoms. We expect that (a) early relationships characterized by low levels of care and high levels of overprotection will be positively associated with both current depressive state and self-criticism and dependency; (b) high levels of self-criticism and dependency will be positively associated with depressive symptoms; and (c) self-criticism and dependency will play a mediating role in the association between participants' perceptions of early relationships characterized by low levels of care and high levels of overprotection and their current depressive symptoms. A nonclinical community sample of 200 Portuguese adults participated in the study. Perceptions of early relationships were measured using the mother scales of the Parental Bonding Instrument (Parker et al. [1979: Br J Med Psychol 52:1-10]), levels of self-criticism and dependency were measured using the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (Blatt et al. [1976: J Abn Psy 6:383-389]), and depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for the Epidemiological Studies of Depression Scale (Radloff [1977: Appl Psychol Meas 1:385-401]. Structural equation modeling showed that the link between participants' perceptions of early caretaking relationships with their mothers and their current depressive symptoms is mediated by high levels of self-criticism--a personality trait associated with vulnerability to depression--but not Dependency. However, an ancillary analysis indicated that the link between participants' perceptions of early maternal overprotective relationships and their current depressive symptoms is mediated by high levels of Neediness. Findings underscore the role of perceived early relationships in psychological vulnerability to depression among highly self-critical and among highly needy individuals and highlight the negative role played by perceived mothers' early dysfunctional practices, characterized by low levels of caring and high levels of overprotection, for the self-critical vulnerability to depression and by perceived mothers' high levels of overprotection, for the neediness vulnerability to depression. These potential causal mechanisms warrant longitudinal evaluation. Theoretical and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

Interstitial Cystitis/Painful Bladder Syndrome and Associated Medical Conditions With an Emphasis on Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

We characterized and compared the impact of clinical phenotypic associations between interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome and controls in relation to potentially related conditions, particularly irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. Female patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome and controls with no interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome completed a biopsychosocial phenotyping questionnaire battery which included demographics/history form, self-reported history of associated conditions, and 10 validated questionnaires focused on symptoms, suffering/coping and behavioral/social factors. Questionnaires were completed by 205 patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome and 117 controls matched for age. Prevalence of self-reported associated condition diagnosis in interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome vs controls was irritable bowel syndrome 38.6% vs 5.2%, fibromyalgia 17.7% vs 2.6% and chronic fatigue syndrome 9.5% vs 1.7% (all p <0.001). In the interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome cohort 50.3% reported no other associated condition, 24.4% had interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome + irritable bowel syndrome only, 2.5% had interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome + fibromyalgia only, 1.5% had interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome + chronic fatigue syndrome only, while 20.2% had multiple associated conditions. As the number of associated conditions increased (ie localized, regional, systemic), pain, stress, depression and sleep disturbance increased while social support, sexual functioning and quality of life deteriorated. Anxiety and catastrophizing remained increased in all groups. Symptom duration was associated with this apparent phenotypic progression. Irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome are more prevalent in patients with interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome than in asymptomatic control subjects, and result in significant impact. There are at least 3 distinct clinical phenotypes based on identification of overlapping syndrome patterns. A suggestion that remains to be proven with longitudinal studies is that there may be progression over time from an organ centric to a regional and finally to a systemic pain syndrome with progression of symptom severity, and deterioration of cognitive and psychosocial parameters.