Appearance Norms Research Articles

Feminine Role Norms Among Australian and Italian Women: a Cross-Cultural Comparison

Australia and Italy are both nations where complex contradictions exist in the current social roles and expectations for women. The current study used the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory (CFNI: Mahalik et al. 2005) to compare the endorsement of eight feminine norms (Nice in Relationships, Thinness, Care for Children, Modesty, Domestic, Romantic Relationships, Sexual Fidelity, Invest in Appearance) by samples of Australian and Italian women, and to demonstrate how any observed differences relate to social and historical differences between the two nations. Two hundred forty-six female undergraduate students from an inner-city university on the East coast of Australia and 187 female undergraduate students from two universities in North-East Italy completed the CFNI. Comparisons were made between the two samples on the eight norms that the inventory examines. Italian women endorsed the Domestic and Romantic Relationships norms to a greater degree than Australian women, whereas Australian women endorsed the Nice in Relationships, Modesty and Sexual Fidelity norms to a greater degree than Italian women. Both samples endorsed the Thinness, Care for Children and Invest in Appearance norms to a similar degree. The current results are discussed in terms of other relevant findings regarding women’s roles in the two nations. The results both highlight the need to avoid the assumption that Western cultures are uniform with their expectations of women, while emphasizing the central roles that physical appearance and child-rearing still play in women’s social roles.

Experimental effects of exposure to media images in adolescent girls: role of appearance comparison and peer norms for appearance

Research has established that exposure to thin-ideal media images has a small negative effect on body image. Less is known about the processes that mediate this effect. In an experimental design, this study aimed to compare the effect on body satisfaction of exposure to thin-ideal images in three conditions: 1) Control, 2) Appearance Comparison (AC), and 3) Peer Appearance Norms (PN). Participants were 140 female year 7 students who viewed 10 media images, before and after which they completed measures of body satisfaction. During exposure, participants responded to questions about the images which focused on design features for control, comparison of oneself with the images for AC, or consideration of peers' appearance-based judgements of others for PN participants. Analysis of covariance revealed a significant effect of condition on body satisfaction. Post-hoc tests indicated that the AC group had significantly lower post-exposure body satisfaction than both control and PN conditions. The latter two groups were not significantly different from one another. The results of this study add to and extend the small but growing body of evidence that engaging in appearance comparisons, but not consideration of peer appearance norms, while viewing images is a critical process in the manifestation of negative effects for body satisfaction. This abstract was presented in the Prevention & Public Health stream of the 2014 ANZAED Conference.

Experiences of objectification and sexual risk behaviors among sexual minority men.

Through an objectification theory lens, this study sought to explore the relationships between various forms of objectification (i.e., sexual objectification and objectification based on masculine appearance norms violations) and sexual risk behaviors among sexual minority men. Utilizing an online data collection procedure, a sample of 216 self-identified sexual minority men participated in this study. This study assessed whether sexual objectification, objectification based on masculine appearance norm violations, and the feelings associated with such experiences predicted sexual risk behaviors. An additional goal of this study was to explore the potential moderating role of emotional valence in the relationship between various forms of objectification and sexual risk behaviors. Results revealed that a greater frequency of sexual objectification, as well as positive feelings associated with sexual objectification experiences, were directly related to more sexual risk behaviors. Additionally, negative feelings associated with objectification based on masculine appearance norm violations predicted sexual risk behaviors. No support was found for the moderating role of emotional valence in the relationship between the different forms of objectification and sexual risk behaviors. Implications for research and intervention are discussed, as well as the strengths and limitations of the study.

Racial differences in the influence of female adolescents’ body size on dating and sex

This paper investigates the effect of body size on dating and sexual experiences of white (non-Hispanic) and African American (non-Hispanic) female adolescents. Using data from Add-Health, we estimate the effects of obesity and BMI z-score on the probability of having been involved in a romantic relationship, having ever been touched in the genital area in a sexual way, and having ever engaged in sexual intercourse. We find that obese white teenage girls are less likely to have been in a romantic relationship compared to their non-obese counterparts. In addition, obese white girls are less likely to ever have had sex (intercourse) or to ever have been intimate. There are no systematic differences in relationship experiences and sexual behaviors between obese and non-obese black girls. Overall, the estimated relationships are very robust to common environmental influences at the school-level and to the inclusion of proxies for low self-esteem, attitudes toward sex and interviewer assessment of appearance and personality. Instrumental variables estimates and estimates from models with lagged weight status confirm the overall patterns.

Understanding the Role of Organizations in the Occupational Status of Industrial Designers Through the Exploration of Dress and Appearance Norms

Mevcut yazina baktigimizda cok disiplinli is ortamlarinda endustriyel tasarimcilarin dusuk bir mesleki statuye sahip olmalarinin ele alinan bir konu oldugunu, ancak bu statunun insasinin gerceklestigi kurumsal baglamlara yeterince odaklanilmadigini goruyoruz. Bu makale, yazindaki bu bosluga yanit olarak, endustriyel tasarimcinin yeni urun gelistirme sureclerinde muhendisler ve pazarlamacilarla isbirligi yapmasini gerektiren kurumsal baglamlari incelemektedir. Farkli kurumsal baglamlarda calisan endustriyel tasarimcilarin benimsedigi kilik kiyafet normlari etrafindaki tartismalara odaklanarak bu normlarin endustriyel tasarimcilar ve diger meslek gruplari arasindaki guc iliskileriyle baglantisini arastirmaktadir. Bu makalenin gorgul dayanagini Turkiye’de cesitli uretim firmalarinda is deneyimine sahip endustriyel tasarimcilarin yuz yuze gorusmelerde anlattiklari hikayeler olusturmaktadir. Bu hikayelerin cozumlemeleri bizi su sonuca goturmektedir: Kurumlar, endustriyel tasarimin ustun olmayan statusunu yeniden uretmekte onemli bir rol oynamaktadir. Bunu da ozellikle muhendislik ve pazarlama baglaminda benimsenen alisilagelmis ‘resmi ve ciddi profesyonel calisan’ imajini, endustriyel tasarimcilarla eslestirilen ve onlarin gayriresmi kiyafet tercihleri tarafindan da desteklenen alisilmadik mesleki imajin uzerinde tutarak saglamaktadirlar. Bu tur simgesel eslestirmeler ve bu eslestirmelerin surdurdugu guc dengesizlikleri, kurumsal hiyerarsi icerisinde endustriyel tasarimcilari guclu konumlardan uzaklastirmaktadir.

Disordered eating, socio-cultural media influencers, body image, and psychological factors among a racially/ethnically diverse population of college women

This study examined disordered eating, socio-cultural media influencers, body image, and psychological factors among a large, racially/ethnically diverse sample of college women (n=1445; 58% White, 21% Asian, 11% Hispanic, 11% Black) who completed an online survey. Black women were significantly more satisfied with their weight and shape and had lower eating concerns, disinhibited eating, and emotional eating than all other racial/ethnic groups. Black women tended to have significantly higher levels of self-esteem, were less likely to compare their body to those of people in the media, felt less pressured to attain the physical appearance standard set by the media, and had less awareness of the societal appearance norms set by the media than other racial groups. Findings suggest that Black college women, independent of weight status, may be protected from disordered eating, negative body image, and societal media pressures.

Resisting and Conforming to the ‘Lesbian Look’: The Importance of Appearance Norms for Lesbian and Bisexual Women

ABSTRACTAppearance is one way in which lesbian and bisexual identities and affiliation to lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB) subculture can be demonstrated. ‘Butch’ and ‘androgynous’ styles have been used by lesbian women to communicate a non‐heterosexual identity. However, some LGB appearance researchers have argued that there has been a mainstreaming and diversification of lesbian style in the last couple of decades, which has resulted in less distinction between lesbian and straight looks. This research draws on the Social Identity approach to explore contemporary style in lesbian and bisexual communities. Fifteen lesbian and bisexual women took part in semi‐structured interviews which were analysed using thematic analysis. Although some participants reported a diversification of lesbian style, most used the term ‘butch’ to describe lesbian style, and a ‘boyish’ look was viewed as the most common contemporary lesbian style. By contrast, most participants could not identify distinct bisexual appearance norms. The data provide evidence of conflicting desires (and expectations) to visibly project social identity by conforming to specific lesbian styles, and to be an authentic, unique individual by resisting these subcultural styles. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Lesbian and bisexual women's experiences of sexuality-based discrimination and their appearance concerns

Lesbian and bisexual women frequently experience sexuality-based discrimination, which is often based on others' judgements about their appearance. This short article aims to explore whether there is a relationship between lesbian and bisexual women's experiences of sexuality-based discrimination and their satisfaction with the way that they look. Findings from an online survey suggest that discrimination is negatively related to appearance satisfaction for lesbian women, but not for bisexual women. It is argued that this difference exists because lesbian appearance norms are more recognisable and distinctive than bisexual women's appearance norms.

‘Never judge a book by its cover?’: students’ understandings of lesbian, gay and bisexual appearance

This research aimed to explore (predominantly heterosexual) students’ perceptions of sexuality and appearance. A short qualitative survey, which contained questions about the ‘typical appearance’ of lesbians, gay men, bisexual and heterosexual people, was completed by 36 university students. Previous research on dress and appearance in relation to sexuality has mainly focused on lesbian, gay or ‘queer’ individuals and communities. Minimal research has considered whether heterosexual people recognise non-heterosexuality through the dress and appearance of lesbians, gay men and bisexual people, and it would seem that previous studies have not explicitly considered the notion that heterosexuality might also be recognisable through appearance. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Findings indicated that while students were able to provide appearance norms for lesbians and gay men (which conformed to those identified in previous research), they were also reluctant to give credence to (what they perceived as) ‘stereotypes’ of sexuality and appearance. They described heterosexual men and women in ways that conformed to ‘traditional’ gender norms, but were less able to identify any appearance norms for bisexual people, reflecting the invisibility of bisexuality within Western culture.

Never Let Them See You Sweat: Silencing and Striving to Appear Perfect among U.S. College Women

Drawing on Goffman’s (1959) impression management, the present study examined how silencing the self (Jack & Dill, 1992) related to psychological distress in US college women. A sample of 149 women aged 18 to 25 enrolled at a large southwestern U.S. university completed a series of survey instruments aimed at gaining knowledge of how several potentially pressure-filled domains of women’s college environment (i.e., Body Image, Romance, Peers, Academics) may factor into a relationship between Silencing and Distress. Path analysis revealed that Silencing was directly, positively related to each source of pressure with the exception of Academic Engagement (where a negative relationship existed). Furthermore, Silencing was directly, positively related to Anxiety and Depression. Additionally, internalization of the thin ideal and competitiveness were predictive of distress among women who Present Perfection, or strive to appear perfect to others. Cluster analyses revealed 4 interpretable clusters of factors related to distress: Middle-of-the-Road, Moderately Appearance Focused, Other-Focused, and Reject Appearance Norms. The Other-Focused women showed the highest levels of distress and lowest academic engagement while those who Reject Appearance Norms showed the lowest distress and highest academic engagement. These relationships indicated that higher levels of attempting to appear perfect to others were related to higher levels of distress among US college women in our sample. This study points to a factor “Presenting Perfection” that may be instrumental in understanding self-silencing behaviors in college women, as well as further understanding the relation between body image, orientation toward others’ judgments, and distress.

Weight and weddings. Engaged men’s body weight ideals and wedding weight management behaviors

Most adults marry at some point in life, and many invest substantial resources in a wedding ceremony. Previous research reports that brides often strive towards culturally-bound appearance norms and engage in weight management behaviors in preparation for their wedding. However, little is known about wedding weight ideals and behaviors among engaged men. A cross-sectional survey of 163 engaged men asked them to complete a questionnaire about their current height and weight, ideal wedding body weight, wedding weight importance, weight management behaviors, formality of their upcoming wedding ceremony, and demographics. Results indicated that the discrepancy between men’s current weight and reported ideal wedding weight averaged 9.61lb. Most men considered being at a certain weight at their wedding to be somewhat important. About 39% were attempting to lose weight for their wedding, and 37% were not trying to change their weight. Attempting weight loss was more frequent among men with higher BMI’s, those planning more formal weddings, and those who considered being the right weight at their wedding as important. Overall, these findings suggest that weight-related appearance norms and weight loss behaviors are evident among engaged men.

Translating intentions into sunscreen use: An interaction of self-efficacy and appearance norms

The study examines whether self-efficacy mediates between intention and behavior, and whether appearance norms and self-efficacy are additive or synergistic predictors of sunscreen use. At two measurement points in time, 14 weeks apart, 154 individuals responded to an online questionnaire. Moderated mediation was tested by hierarchical regression analyses. Self-efficacy mediated the intention–behavior relationship, whereas appearance norms emerged as a moderator of the self-efficacy–sunscreen use relationship. The model accounted for 22% of the behavior variance at Time 2. For individuals who believe that they would look more attractive with a tan, self-efficacy did not have a strong effect on behavior. Thus, for skin-protection motivation to become effective, self-efficacy is needed in conjunction with less positive appearance norms. Implications for public health promotion and mass media sunscreen use campaigns are discussed.

Setting the bar: Divergent sociocultural norms for women's and men's ideal appearance in real-world contexts

Research suggests that exposure to sociocultural norms for idealized appearance can reduce both women's and men's body satisfaction. Despite comparable effects for both genders in the lab, in the “real-world” women's body satisfaction is chronically lower than men's. Real-world gender differences may arise from discrepancies in men's and women's everyday exposure to norms. Across eight studies using a variety of content analysis, survey, and experimental methods, we examine differences in sociocultural norms for ideal appearance pertaining to women and men in “daily life” contexts. We demonstrate that appearance norms encountered by women in daily life are more rigid, homogenous and pervasive than those for men, and that more messages implying the attainability of the ideal appearance are directed at women. Finally, experimental results show that homogeneous, rigid norms (like those typically encountered by women) are more harmful to body image than heterogeneous, flexible norms (like those typically encountered by men).

Masculinity, Consumerism, and Appearance: A Look at Men's Hair

Historically, being concerned about appearance was stereotypically associated with women. Now masculinities too have become embedded in appearance norms. Consequently men too are increasingly concerned about their appearance. Via interviews with 14 Canadian men, the role of hair in self-identification and both satisfaction and dissatisfaction with appearance is examined. Emergent themes suggest that masculinity and appearance are increasingly intertwined, and consumer culture cultivates a climate that encourages men to view their appearance as something worthy of investment. Findings suggest that men are concerned about their appearance-specifically their hair-and that there is a relationship between masculinity, appearance, and self-identification. Findings are discussed within theories of masculinity and consumerism.

Americanized beauty? Predictors of perceived attractiveness from US and South Korean participants based on media exposure, ethnicity, and socio-cultural attitudes toward ideal beauty

The objective of this project was to identify themes, patterns and predictors related to attractiveness ideals and appearance norms in other women among a sample of men and women in the USA and South Korea. The socio-cultural theoretical model has the strongest empirical support for understanding body image disturbance and appearance anxiety, by presenting to women through media representations the current societal standard for image and appearance. What is not known is how these cultural norms present in the USA are also present in countries like South Korea. This study's objective was a comparative analysis of South Korean and USA perceptions of attractiveness and beauty along with the influence of US media on South Koreans’ attractiveness ideals. Several independent variables (media exposure, socio-cultural pressures to be thin, socio-cultural pressures to be attractive, perceived influence of outside sources in the development of ideal beauty, and gender) were measured to determine which variables might be more significantly linked to attractiveness estimates and appearance norms. Findings suggest significant differences between US and South Korean participants’ evaluations of attractiveness in others, and several predictor variables including BMI, self-discrepancy, and socio-cultural attitudes were found to be related to higher or lower attractiveness evaluation scores. These and other findings are discussed.

Aging, Femininity, and the Body: What Appearance Changes Mean to Women with Age

In this article, I analyze interviews with a diverse group of 30 women aged 46–71 to understand how they experience signs of aging, such as weight gain, gray hair, and facial hair, in everyday life. I find that some women’s responses are in line with normative femininity and appearance norms. Others, however, focus on different gendered meanings of the body that are connected to care-taking, work, ageist treatment, and past abuse. I argue that feminists should apply the theoretical concept of femininity more broadly than appearance and attraction issues to gain a deeper understanding of the multiple meanings of living in an aging female body in a gendered society. In the conclusion, I discuss the implications of this study for public health policies as well as future research on gender and the body.

V. Clothes Maketh the Queer? Dress, Appearance and the Construction of Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Identities

In this short report of an exploratory qualitative study, we consider whether a small group of younger British lesbians, gay men and bisexuals felt under pressure to conform to lesbian/gay appearance norms and used their clothing and appearance to actively construct and manage a visual identity as lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB). One of the exercises the first author regularly uses when teaching about the sociocultural construction of LGB identities involves students brainstorming their associations for the words ‘lesbian’, ‘gay man’ and ‘bisexual’. For many students, the word ‘lesbian’ conjures up associations like ‘ugly’, ‘butch’, ‘masculine’, ‘short hair’, ‘dungarees’ and ‘comfortable shoes’ (see Peel, 2005). Whereas gay men are allied to style, fashion, grooming and effeminacy (witness all the ‘makeover’ television shows featuring gay men – Queer Eye for the Straight Guy, How Not to Decorate). In short, many students have a clear image of the (stereo)typical lesbian and gay man. By contrast, students typically identify (a smaller number of) associations for the word ‘bisexual’ (such as ‘confused’ and ‘greedy’), but have no clear image of the typical bisexual. The centrality of the visual to lesbian and gay identity is readily apparent in popular cultural sources, such as Queer (Gage et al., 2002), that document the ways in which lesbians and gay men have used dress, hairstyling, jewellery, tattoos, piercings and other adornments to signify their sexual identity (or preferences). Although appearance norms have changed throughout history (Edwards, 1997; Faderman, 1991), it has been argued that dress and appearance constitute a primary way of asserting and displaying a lesbian and gay identity (Holliday, 2001). Lesbians and gay men use clothing and adornment to create a sense of group identity (separate from the dominant culture), to resist and challenge normative (gendered) expectations, and to signal their sexual identity to the wider world or just to those ‘in the know’ (Rothblum, 1994; Traub, 2003). At the same time, strategies of passing have made use of the semiotic codes woven into clothing (Skidmore, 1999). Giving the centrality of visual identity to lesbian and gay culture and communities, and the role of dress and appearance as key signifiers

Appearance Culture in Nine‐ to 12‐Year‐Old Girls: Media and Peer Influences on Body Dissatisfaction

AbstractLittle research has investigated sociocultural factors in the development of body dissatisfaction in preadolescent girls. This study examined the combined influence of media and peer factors. The participants were 100 girls aged nine to 12 years. The girls completed questionnaire measures of media exposure (television and magazines), peer influences (appearance norms, appearance conversations), internalization and body dissatisfaction. Their height and weight were also measured. About half (49 percent) of the girls displayed a desire to be thinner. The influence of sociocultural factors was confirmed in addition to biological determinants, such as body mass index. Their exposure to appearance‐focused media was not directly related to their body dissatisfaction, but was indirectly related via their conversations about appearance among peers. The path analysis showed that peer appearance conversations demonstrated a significant relationship with internalization of thin ideals, which was, in turn, significantly related to body dissatisfaction. Like their adolescent counterparts, preadolescent girls are also exposed to appearance ideals presented in the media and manifested among peers. The results provided evidence for the existence of an ‘appearance culture’ consisting of interrelated media and peer influences among girls as young as nine to 12 years of age.

Acculturation, Internalization of Western Appearance Norms, and Eating Pathology Among Japanese and Chinese International Student Women

In the context of the sociocultural model of eating disorders, this study investigated the hypothesis that Westernization would be positively associated with eating pathology among non-Western women. International participants from Japan ( n = 26), Peoples Republic of China ( n = 25), Taiwan ( n = 30), and Hong Kong ( n = 25) who were studying in the United States completed the Eating Attitudes Test, Symptoms Checklist, Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire, the American–International Relations Survey, and a demographic questionnaire. Awareness and internalization of Western appearance norms were positively associated with eating disordered symptoms, but acculturation was not. Results lend further support for the sociocultural model. It is suggested that measures of eating pathology and acculturation be closely examined with respect to their cross-cultural relevance, particularly when conducting research involving international populations.

The sociocultural attitudes towards appearance scale-3 (SATAQ-3): development and validation.

The goal of this investigation was to develop and validate a revision of a widely used measure of societal influences on body image and eating disturbances-the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ). Two independent samples of college females completed a revision and extension of the SATAQ and factor analyses were conducted to determine the underlying structure of the revised scale. Factor analyses indicated two distinct internalization factors: one appeared to reflect a generic media influence related to TV, magazines, and movies. A second factor clearly reflected internalization of athletic and sports figures. Two other factors, reflecting media pressures and media as an informational source, also emerged. Another widely used measure of thin-ideal internalization, the Ideal Body Internalization Scale-Revised (IBIS-R), was included in factor analyses to determine its empirical relationship with the revised SATAQ. None of the IBIS-R items loaded with any of the internalization items or items reflective of media pressures or information. Instead, the IBIS-R appeared to tap into an awareness of appearance norms dimension. The SATAQ-3 subscales had excellent convergent validity with measures of body image and eating disturbance. Eating-disturbed and eating-disordered samples had higher scores on SATAQ-3 subscales than a control sample. The SATAQ-3 measures multiple aspects of a societal influence and should prove useful for basic risk factor work as well as for gauging the efficacy of prevention and treatment programs.