Apparent Gender Research Articles

Genetic factors in early separation anxiety: implications for the genesis of adult anxiety disorders

An important contemporary conceptualization of anxiety has suggested that heightened early separation anxiety is specifically associated with the risk of adult panic disorder, with hereditary factors underlying that cluster of anxiety disorders. Yet there is a dearth of studies examining whether early separation anxiety is inherited. The present twin study, based on a retrospective approach, revealed a substantial genetic contribution to separation anxiety in females but not in males, with unique environmental influences being important in both gender groups. Although speculative, an evolutionary explanation is offered to account for the apparent gender difference in the inheritance of early separation anxiety. It is hypothesized that, in some women, phylogenetic vestiges of separation anxiety may conflict with their need to compete in an individualistic manner in the modern workplace. Whether such an attachment-autonomy conflict accounts for the increased rate of panic disorder and agoraphobia in women is worthy of further study.

Feminized justice: The impact of women decision makers in the lower courts in Australia

We examine the impact of an Australian state government's decision to appoint a considerable number of women to its previously all-male Magistrates' Courts. Interviews with a sample of 30 male and female magnistrates revealed ready acceptance of this major change, probably because of organizational peculiarities of the jurisdiction. The advent of women as judicial decision makers was perceived to have improved the work environment of the courts. Comparison of the ways in which male and female magistrates perceive aspects of their job (e.g., judicial role, adjudication, sentencing, and the conduct of informal proceedings) suggests that most of the apparent gender differences are more likely the product of age and background than evidence of justice “in a different voice.” Changes in court ideology suggest that the appointment of women may have been used to further more general political objectives. A critical question for feminist research might be: When and why do conservative institutions adopt strategie...

Relation of gender to the use of cardiac procedures in acute myocardial infarction

In summary, in patients with AMI, apparent gender differences in the use of angiography disappeared after demographic and clinical variables were accounted for by multivariate analysis. In the subgroup of patients who had undergone angiography, there were no differences in the use of subsequent revascularization procedures. It is heartening to observe that patients with AMI received similar care regardless of gender.

Molecular cloning of a chiral-specific 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase.

A novel stereoselective hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase (HST) that acts on neutral steroids having the 3-hydroxyl group in the alpha orientation but not on steroids where the 3-hydroxyl group is oriented in the beta position has been cloned and expressed. Primary screening of a guinea pig adrenal cDNA library was performed by colony hybridization using an oligonucleotide probe based on a highly homologous region among known steroid sulfotransferases. Selected clones consisted of overlapping sequences but were incomplete. The rapid amplification of cDNA ends procedure was used to construct a full-length guinea pig HST cDNA. The guinea pig HST cDNA transiently transfected into Chinese hamster ovary K1 cells expressed a protein identical in size to that of purified guinea pig HST specific for 3 alpha-hydroxylated neutral steroids that was recently reported (Driscoll, W. J., Martin, B. M., Chen, H.-C., and Strott, C. A. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268, 23496-23503). The expressed HST likewise exhibited sulfotransferase activity that was directed specifically toward steroid substrates containing a 3-hydroxyl group in the alpha orientation; on the other hand, steroids with a 3 beta-hydroxyl group were not sulfonated by the expressed HST. Thus, the cloned HST cDNA clearly coded for a steroid sulfotransferase with chiral specificity for 3 alpha-hydroxylated neutral steroids and was, therefore, given the designation of guinea pig 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase (gp3 alpha-HST). The full-length gp3 alpha-HST cDNA consisted of 1182 base pairs and coded for a protein containing 287 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence of the protein shares 65/79, 65/80, and 62/76% identity/similarity with rat, mouse, and human HST, respectively. Northern blot analysis of guinea pig tissues revealed no apparent gender differences in either mRNA species or distribution; a single 1.4-kilobase HST mRNA species was present in adrenal and liver tissue. Interestingly, the adrenal mRNA content was considerably more abundant than that found in the liver. Evidence for 3 alpha-HST mRNA was not detected in kidney, heart, lung, muscle, spleen, or uterus.

Gender differences in substrate utilisation during exercise.

The selection and utilisation of metabolic substrates during endurance exercise are regulated by a complex array of effectors. These factors include, but are not limited to, endurance training and cardiorespiratory fitness, exercise intensity and duration, muscle morphology and histology, hormonal factors and diet. Although the effects of these factors on substrate utilisation patterns are well understood, the variation in substrate utilisation during endurance exercise between males and females is not. Because of the extreme heterogeneity in exercise protocols and individuals studied, the differences in substrate utilisation between males and females remain somewhat inconclusive. Regardless of heterogeneity, if the results from studies are interpreted collectively, an apparent gender difference in the selection and metabolism of substrates can be seen in sedentary individuals. However, this difference between genders diminishes as the level of cardiorespiratory fitness is increased to that of highly trained individuals. During rest and lower intensity exercise, the preferential metabolism of lipid occurs with a concomitant sparing of muscle glycogen. However, as the intensity of exercise is increased, the relative contribution of carbohydrate also increases. The exercise intensity at which the shift from lipid to carbohydrate is determined and regulated by the previously mentioned factors. Because the intensity and duration of exercise play a predominant role, the variation in exercise protocols poses a methodological concern when interpreting previous research. When attempting to compare the metabolism of substrates during endurance exercise, appropriate selection and interpretation of measurement techniques are necessary. Measurement techniques include the nonprotein respiratory exchange ratio, muscle and fat biopsies and the measurement of various blood metabolites, such as free fatty acids and glycerol. Similarly, in vitro analysis of lipolytic activity has also been demonstrated in males and females in response to varying levels of female gonadotrophic hormones. When comparing the substrate utilisation patterns between males and females, the area of hormonal regulation has received less attention. Often the catecholamine response to endurance exercise is measured; however, the gonadotrophic hormones, particularly those of the female, have received less attention when comparing genders. Indeed, the regulatory nature of the female gonadotrophic hormones has been demonstrated. Collectively, the effects of elevated estrogen, as in the luteal phase of menstruation, appear to promote lipolytic activity. Estrogen-mediated lipolytic activation occurs by apparently altering the sensitivity to lipoprotein lipase and by increasing the levels of human growth hormone (somatotropin), an activator of lipolysis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

John Henryism and blood pressure in black college students.

Previous research on John Henryism, a coping mechanism linked to hypertension in blacks, has focused almost exclusively on rural, low-socioeconomic status (SES), adult populations. Furthermore, these studies have not evaluated mediating influences of John Henryism except in terms of SES. The primary focus of the current investigation was to examine the influence of John Henryism on cardiovascular disease risk factors among a relatively healthy sample of 421 urban, black college students. A second component of the study was to determine the role of social support as a mediating influence on those with limited coping resources and high John Henryism scores. Approximately 30% of males and 9% of females had systolic blood pressures > or = 140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressures > or = 90. Females had higher John Henryism scores than males. John Henryism was also correlated with social support in females. Gender-specific regression models revealed that John Henryism was not an independent predictor of blood pressure in black college students. The results are discussed in terms of apparent gender differences with regard to overall coping mechanisms in black students and possible explanations for the lack of a John Henryism-blood pressure relationship in this population.

Gender differences in sexual jealousy: Adaptionist or social learning explanation?

It has often been speculated, and some evidence suggests, that men and women differ in the elicitation of jealousy: Men appear to be more likely than women to become upset over threats to sexual exclusivity; whereas women are more likely than men to react negatively to potential loss of partner time and attention. Both adaptionist and traditional social learning theories have been used to explain these apparent gender differences. In the present article we outline both explanations and review the relevant psychological literature on gender differences in the elicitation of jealousy. We propose that the difference in men's and women's psychological mechanisms for elicitation of jealousy is best characterized (at least in this culture) as a greater sensitivity among men to cues indicative of possible sexual infidelity rather than greater emotional upset in response to the occurence of extradyadic sex on the part of one's mate. We also provide data testing a traditional social learning explanation for the elicitation of jealousy. Results of a survey administered to college students ( N = 223) demonstrate the subtle nature of gender differences in the elicitation of jealousy within this culture. Men and women were most likely to differ (in the hypothesized directions) when items pertained to concern over a partner's potential extradyadic sex rather than to reactions to sexual infidelity that is suspected to have already occurred. Although men reported placing more value on sexual activity within dating relationships and women reported placing more value on emotional intimacy, these ratings of relationship rewards did not explain the gender differences in reported jealousy. Results failed to support a traditional social learning explanation of jealousy and are discussed with regard to evolutionary theory and directions for future research.

Beri-beri: age-gender bias in The Gambia.

This paper investigates a suspected outbreak of beri-beri which occurred in The Gambia in 1988. The outbreak was spatially specific and had a distinct age and gender bias, with young men aged 15-49 being the group mainly affected. The age and gender bias of the outbreak is particularly interesting as women and children in the developing world are usually more susceptable to conditions associated with malnourishment, than men. The authors investigate the peculiar nature of the outbreak and find that they cannot easily explain the apparent age and gender bias. The authors note that at the time of the outbreak medical treatment took precedence over socio-economic investigations. This makes it difficult to ascertain why certain age and gender groups were affected and thus to target them for future preventative health education programmes. This case study therefore concludes, that where possible, medical investigations must be combined with socio-economic studies if future outbreaks of this kind are to be avoided.

Widowhood and Depression: Explaining Long-Term Gender Differences in Vulnerability

Results from a 1986 national survey (N = 3,614) show that having ever been widowed is associated with current levels of depression and that this association is greater for men than women. Some of this apparent gender difference occurs because men have been widowed for a shorter average period of time than women and the effects of widowhood appear to lessen over time. Widowhood also is associated with different types and amounts of life strain for men and women. The results suggest that the primary mechanism linking widowhood to depression among women is financial strain. Among men, the more critical mechanisms seem to be strains associated with household management. When specific strains occur, they appear to have different effects on respondents who have ever been widowed and those who have not. Taken together, these results suggest that what appears on the surface to be a gender difference in vulnerability to the same life event turns out upon closer examination to occur because widowhood does not affect men and women in the same way.

Education for Equality in a Changing Society

ABSTRACT The apparent gender inequalities in Singapore, in terms of educational access and attainment and labour force participation, have historical roots which are reflective of deep-seated social mores. A progressive trend towards greater equality is however discernible. But in a number of areas, such as enrolments in Science and Techincal courses, as contrasted with arts and education courses, females are disproportionately under-represented compared with meals. While equality of educational opportunities is generally adopted in Singapore, educationists need to be vigilant against possible negative effects of some educational practices, such as the differential effects of early streaming, which might be disadvan-ageous to boys who tend to mature later than girls, and the adverse effects of self-fulfilling prophecies arising from the hidden curriculum of sex stereotyping.

Women business owners and terms of credit: Some empirical findings of the Canadian experience

Most previous studies of this topic have followed a methodology of selecting a sample of women business owners, and then questioning them on their experience with their own business(es). Although financing frequently is noted as a major problem, previous studies suffer from the absence of a “control” group—a corresponding group of male business owners with whom to compare experiences. Furthermore, previous studies have tended to ask the respondent if she believes that she was treated any differently because she was a woman, a leading question which could potentially bias the conclusions. Previous work reveals a pervasive perception that there is discrimination by bankers against women business owners, a conclusion based on a widespread, but subjective, perception by some women owners; however, there also appears to be a lack of real statistical evidence. Moreover, it is not clear that personal feelings of apparent “reluctance” displayed by some bankers carry over to professional judgements and to systematically different terms of credit. One of the contributions of this paper is that a comparison of the actual experiences of both female and male business owners in their relationship with financial institutions are compared over a fixed period of time. Every attempt has been made to carry out these comparisons in a rigorous, statistical manner. Another contribution arises because the findings to be described here are based on a broad and comprehensive study of the small business/banking relationship and did not exclusively focus on the male/female issues. Thus, any bias that could have occurred in other studies by focusing on women business owner problems is likely to be minimized. The findings described in this study are based on a total of 3,217 business principals' responses to a national survey. The number of women business owners in the sample was 153. In aggregate, it was found that the financing conditions for women principals are less favorable than those for male business owners; however, it was also found that female-owned firms tend to be both younger and smaller than male-owned firms in the sample. Moreover, woman business owners were more likely to be proprietors than their male counterparts, and were less likely to be incorporated businesses. In addition, a statistically significant tendency for businesses owned by women to be characterized by lower rates of sales growth than those owned by men was also identified. These differences between patterns of small business ownership between men and women allow alternative explanations of what might at first seem to be an apparent gender bias. In order to separate the effects of ownership patterns from potential gender bias, it was necessary to focus on the effect of the gender of the owners by holding constant those factors which provide alternative explanations of the aggregate results. This was accomplished by creating benchmark subsamples of male respondents by matching women respondents with male respondents on the basis of age, size, industry, growth rate, and organization form of the businesses. When this was done, one area was identified in which statistically significant gender-related differences remained: that of collateral requirements for a line of credit. Apparent gender-related differences in the other aspects of banking practices (rates of loan approvals, cosignature requirements, requirements for loan collateral, and interest rates on loans and lines of credit) can be accounted for by the differences in the characteristics of male - and female-owned businesses. The difference in the collateral required of men and women owners is an important difference. Collateral requirements were identified as a major concern by a high proportion of all survey respondents; in fact, collateral requirements appear to be the major banking-related concern of small businesses. The line of credit is viewed to be essential to growth and survival, yet a lower proportion of women owners than men owners report having a line of credit. Thus, it seems that development of the banking relationship—including the establishment of a line of credit—has proven more difficult for women than for men.

Ileocecal intussusception in horses: 26 cases (1981-1988)

Summary The case records of 26 horses with ileocecal intussusception over a 7-year period were reviewed to determine clinical features of the disease and response to treatment. The median age of horses with ileocecal intussusception was 1 year and ranged from 2 weeks to 19 years. There was no apparent gender or breed predisposition to this disease. An acute form of ileocecal intussusception was diagnosed in 19 horses with signs of moderate to severe abdominal pain of:$ 24 hours' duration, and a chronic form was diagnosed in 7 horses with signs of intermittent, mild to moderate abdominal pain of more than 3 days' duration. Horses with chronic ileocecal intussusception had a history of weight loss or failure to gain weight, slow growth, poor appetite, low-grade pyrexia, and postprandial signs of abdominal pain. At surgery, the involved segments of intestine (intussusceptum and intussuscipiens) in chronic cases were 2 to 10 cm long, and the ileum and much of the distal portion of the jejunum were flaccid, dilated, and thick walled. In the acute cases, the length of involved intestine ranged from 6 to 457 cm. Whereas only 1 of 7 chronic intussusceptions (14%) could be reduced, 9 of 19 (47%) acute intussusceptions were reducible. Surgical treatment included resection and jejunocecostomy (6 horses), partial resection through a cecotomy and a side-to-side jejunocecostomy (2 horses), and a side-to-side ileocecostomy or jejunocecostomy without resection (12 horses, 7 of which had chronic intussusception). Six horses with acute intussusception were euthanatized before or during surgery. Four horses with acute intussusception died or were euthanatized between 2 and 9 months after surgery, 1 from unknown causes, 2 from impaction at the anastomosis, and 1 from small-intestinal strangulation. Two horses were lost to long-term follow-up. Horses with chronic intussusception survived, but some of these horses had a slow postoperative recovery.

Sex differences in death anxiety: Testing the emotional expressiveness hypothesis

Abstract Several researchers have reported sex differences in death anxiety, but such differences have not been systematically investigated. This study attempts to test the generality of elevated death anxiety of women in a heterogeneous, racially mixed adult sample (h = 117). Moreover, we tested the viability of one explanation of this apparent gender difference. We statistically controlled for potential sex differences in self-disclosure or “social desirability” response bias. As predicted, women scored higher than men on the affectively oriented Death Anxiety Scale, but not on the more cognitively oriented Threat Index. However, in conflict with the emotional expressiveness hypothesis, this pattern of findings remained unchanged once we statistically controlled self-disclosure and social desirability. These findings suggest that sex differences in death attitudes are real rather than artifactual, and deserve more empirical study.

Aging and immunity in nonhuman primates: I. Effects of age and gender on cellular immune function in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta).

Immunity declines with advancing age. Lymphocyte proliferation, natural killer cell activity, and antibody response to tetanus toxoid vaccination were evaluated in cohorts of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) aged 2-36 years in order to characterize senescent changes in immune function. The results were analyzed in accordance with host age. Lymphocyte proliferation was generally low in older monkeys, especially males. Lymphocytes from old male monkeys responded significantly less to test mitogens than did those of old female (P<.05) or young males and females (P<.01). Natural killer cell function was similarly decreased in old monkeys; however, for this function there was no apparent gender difference. Antibody response to tetanus vaccine was less in older monkeys but was also low in several of the younger moskeys. These data confirm our expectation that, like other mammalian species, the rhesus monkey shows a decline in immune function with age and demonstrate further that the changes are more marked in males. Rhesus monkeys, therefore, are suitable for the investigation of mechanisms of immune senescence.

The Gender Dysphoria Scale

The Gender Dysphoria (Gd) Scale developed by Althof, Lothstein, Jones and Shen (1983) was compared in a data base sample of 483 cases. There were 46 gender patients, 383 sexually anomalous patients and 54 community controls. The Gd Scale did show that gender patients had highest scores but there were indistinguishable from homosexuals (androphiles) who had no apparent gender dysphoria. Community controls also scored higher than nonhomosexual sexually anomalous patients. An examination of the Gd scales test properties showed that it had poor internal consistency and tended to be biased by education and IQ. Suggestions fro improving the Gd scale are offered.

Non-agreement on Romance disagreements

i. Frans Plank (I984), in the context of discussion of possible universal constraints on linguistic rules, wonders whether phonology can 'interfere' with syntax: he adduces examples of 'Romance disagreement' as an illustration that the operation of syntactic rules can be influenced by phonological factors. Here I shall not challenge his general hypothesis, but merely claim that his examples do not sustain it. He admits that his case rests on the assumption that his examples show DIsagreement, rather than NON-agreement (34I), thus placing them in the realm of syntax, rather than morphology (345-346). So it should be sufficient to demonstrate that the apparently disagreeing elements are phonologically conditioned non-agreeing allomorphs a view Plank himself examines and rejects, because it would involve an implausible degree of' accidental homonymy'. At the risk of being accused of 'ad hoc-ery', I shall seek to show that idiosyncratic features of the languages examined have, plausibly, contributed to the development of such homonymy. Of the three Romance examples Plank discusses, two are to do with apparent gender disagreement of noun determiners (Spanish el before feminine nouns beginning with initial a; French mon, ton, son2 before vowel-initial feminine nouns or preposed adjectives). The other concerns pronominal cross-reference in Barcelona Catalan, where 'inanimate' clitic pronoun hi replaces its 'animate' counterpart li, when conjoined with another pronoun beginning with 1. Here the question of clitic ordering is also involved (Posner, I980: I83), and, in any case, Plank's statement of the facts is not comprehensive enough; as in French and Spanish, the standard language displays anomalies that are absent from more colloquial usage.3 It is

Gender and Cognitive Abilities in the Acquisition and Transfer of Basic Flying Skills - Another Look

Thirty Air Force Academy cadets, 15 males and 15 females, participated in an experiment designed to investigate the relationship between certain cognitive abilities, gender and the acquisition and transfer of basic flying skills. Subjects were classified into low, medium and high groups based on their scores on tests measuring spatial relations and visualization. Males and females were matched within the groups. Results suggest classification removes previous apparent gender differences in psychomotor performance.

Longitudinal stability in adult status hierarchies among vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)

Status hierarchies were examined in a captive group over a 12-year period (1968-1979) to establish the stability and structure of vervet monkey dominance relationships. Dyadic records of spontaneous avoid, bite, chase, and supplant behaviors are summarized into a win/lose matrix to produce a rank order of status at the end of each calendar year. The 13,717 agonistic acts tabulated are drawn from both focal and ad lib data. Relative rank is computed by dividing the rank position of each individual by the number of individuals ranked for that year. Relative rank was found to be quite stable for adults of both sexes, although males were more variable than females. There was a strong matinrline effect on all captive born animals' rank position. No gender difference in rank was demonstrable. Infants were very subordinate at the end of their first year, but rose to positions near those of their mothers by the end of the fourth year. Presence or absence of canine teeth had no demonstrable effect on status. The results emphasize the relative importance of social learning in the establishment and maintenance of dominance relationships. The apparent gender difference in rank among wild living vervets is hypothesized to be a consequence of the male intergroup mobility. If a male is restrained from emigration, he is strongly affected by his mother's rank as he establishes his own dominance position in the troop.

Gender Stereotypes, Ascribed Gender and Social Perception

This study studied the effects of gender labeling on the descriptions made by naive observers (43 males and 104 females) of filmed presentations of five individuals. For several of the five individuals the chromosomal and anatomic gender was discrepant with the apparent gender assumed from dress or physical appearance. The observers were informed after the first rating of the biological gender of the five persons and were asked to repeat their descriptions. Merely changing the label, i.e., male/female, significantly altered the descriptions. The label appeared to invoke the observers' stereotypic model of male/female qualities and overrode "objective" assessment.

Sexual behavior of the arl colony chimpanzees.

This is a report of studies of the sexual behavior of the ARL Colony chimpanzees from July, 1966, through August, 1967. The ARL Colony has an innovation designated the DPS Chimpanzee Consortium which permits the containment of social groups of chimpanzees on 30 acres of New Mexico desert. The solicitation, mounting and copulatory behavior of the consortium animals was similar in form to that reported in field studies. However, the incidence of both copulatory and masturbatory behavior was much higher than in the wild. In spite of this overall high incidence of copulatory behavior, three of the five adult males, who were cage-reared and presumably sex-segregated until maturity, were not observed to copulate when they had the opportunity to do so. However, they seemed to show no reduction in sexual drive. Two masturbated frequently and all three practiced perverse sexual acts. Both adolescent and juvenile males were interested in estrous females and actively solicited, mounted and copulated with them frequently. Three of the four adult consortium females tended to avoid copulation. However, this reluctance of adult females to copulate could be overcome by a large aggressive male and all of the adult consortium females became pregnant. It is hypothesized that feral-born but cage-reared, sex-segregated chimpanzees are capable of normal mating behavior if they are given an opportunity to experiment and learn before a critical period occurring during late adolescence and early adulthood. An adult who has passed this critical period is either unable to learn to copulate or to orient adequately toward an estrous female, although the sexual drive is manifested in masturbation and other ways. There was also a higher incidence of nonsexual mounting and presenting by consortium animals of both sexes than has been reported in the wild. The older females frequently “mothered” small juveniles, but most noteworthy was the fact that many male chimpanzees also interacted with small juveniles in a maternal-like manner. Unlike wild females, the consortium females frequently displayed aggressive dominance behavior toward males as well as other females. The consortium females were also the frequent victims of male aggression, which has been rarely noted in the field. Hypotheses to explain these apparent gender role shifts are offered.