Apoptosis In INS-1 Cells Research Articles

Peptide micelle-mediated curcumin delivery for protection of islet β-cells under hypoxia

Islet transplantation is one of many therapeutic approaches for the treatment of diabetes. During transplant procedures, the isolated islets are subjected to hypoxic conditions, and undergo the apoptotic process. Curcumin has a cytoprotective effect, and may therefore be useful for the protection of islets under hypoxia. However, curcumin is hydrophobic, and an efficient curcumin carrier is required for effective treatment. In this study, R3V6 peptide micelles, composed of a 3-arginine stretch and 6-valine stretch, were evaluated as a curcumin carrier to INS-1 insulinoma cells. Curcumin was loaded into R3V6 micelles at a weight ratio of 10:3 (R3V6:curcumin). The size and surface charge of the curcumin-loaded R3V6 micelles (R3V6-curcumin) were approximately 250 nm and 17.49 mV, respectively. R3V6-curcumin delivered curcumin to the INS-1 cells more efficiently than either curcumin alone or a simple mixture of R3V6 and curcumin. MTT assay indicated that under hypoxia, R3V6-curcumin protected INS-1 cells more efficiently than curcumin alone. TUNEL and reactive oxygen species (ROS) assays suggested that R3V6-curcumin reduced INS-1 cell apoptosis under hypoxia. These results demonstrate that R3V6 peptide micelles are an effective carrier of curcumin, and that R3V6-curcumin may improve the viability of pancreatic β-cells in islet transplantation.

Phycocyanin prevents methylglyoxal-induced mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in INS-1 cells by Nrf2.

Methylglyoxal (MG) is a reactive dicarbonyl compound, whose abnormal accumulation in diabetic patients exerts deleterious effects on cells and tissues. The β-cell is the main target cell of Type 2 diabetes, and its insulin secretion injury and cell apoptosis can be due to mitochondrial dysfunction. Previous studies have demonstrated MG induced β-cell apoptosis. However, little is known about the effect of MG on β-cell mitochondrial dysfunction. Phycocyanin (PC) has been demonstrated to possess various biological activities including the effects on diabetic models in vivo. The aim of this study was to determine the protective effect of PC against methylglyoxal (MG)-induced dysfunction in pancreatic β-cell INS-1 and also the mechanism. We demonstrated that MG induced mitochondrial dysfunction by the decline in ATP levels, and the increase of the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, MG released cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) from the mitochondrion, induced changes in the expression of Bcl-2 family members, activated caspases and increased PARP cleavage. Interestingly, PC activated nuclear erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and Nrf2 activation as well as antioxidant enzymes HO-1 and glyoxalase 1 (Glo-1) were confirmed to be involved in the mechanisms underlying the protection of PC by RNA interference. Altogether, these results demonstrated that PC prevented mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in MG-induced INS-1 cells and the effect was associated with Nrf2 activation.

Ghrelin Protects against Dexamethasone-Induced INS-1 Cell Apoptosis via ERK and p38MAPK Signaling.

Glucocorticoid excess induces apoptosis of islet cells, which may result in diabetes. In this study, we investigated the protective effect of ghrelin on dexamethasone-induced INS-1 cell apoptosis. Our data showed that ghrelin (0.1 μM) inhibited dexamethasone-induced (0.1 μM) apoptosis of INS-1 cells and facilitated cell proliferation. Moreover, ghrelin upregulated Bcl-2 expression, downregulated Bax expression, and decreased caspase-3 activity. The protective effect of ghrelin against dexamethasone-induced INS-1 cell apoptosis was mediated via growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a. Further studies revealed that ghrelin increased ERK activation and decreased p38MAPK expression after dexamethasone treatment. Ghrelin-mediated protection of dexamethasone-induced apoptosis of INS-1 cells was attenuated using the ERK inhibitor U0126 (10 μM), and cell viability increased using the p38MAPK inhibitor SB203580 (10 μM). In conclusion, ghrelin could protect against dexamethasone-induced INS-1 cell apoptosis, at least partially via GHS-R1a and the signaling pathway of ERK and p38MAPK.

JNK1 Deficient Insulin-Producing Cells Are Protected against Interleukin-1β-Induced Apoptosis Associated with Abrogated Myc Expression.

The relative contributions of the JNK subtypes in inflammatory β-cell failure and apoptosis are unclear. The JNK protein family consists of JNK1, JNK2, and JNK3 subtypes, encompassing many different isoforms. INS-1 cells express JNK1α1, JNK1α2, JNK1β1, JNK1β2, JNK2α1, JNK2α2, JNK3α1, and JNK3α2 mRNA isoform transcripts translating into 46 and 54 kDa isoform JNK proteins. Utilizing Lentiviral mediated expression of shRNAs against JNK1, JNK2, or JNK3 in insulin-producing INS-1 cells, we investigated the role of individual JNK subtypes in IL-1β-induced β-cell apoptosis. JNK1 knockdown prevented IL-1β-induced INS-1 cell apoptosis associated with decreased 46 kDa isoform JNK protein phosphorylation and attenuated Myc expression. Transient knockdown of Myc also prevented IL-1β-induced apoptosis as well as caspase 3 cleavage. JNK2 shRNA potentiated IL-1β-induced apoptosis and caspase 3 cleavage, whereas JNK3 shRNA did not affect IL-1β-induced β-cell death compared to nonsense shRNA expressing INS-1 cells. In conclusion, JNK1 mediates INS-1 cell death associated with increased Myc expression. These findings underline the importance of differentiated targeting of JNK subtypes in the development of inflammatory β-cell failure and destruction.

Islet Stellate Cells Isolated from Fibrotic Islet of Goto-Kakizaki Rats Affect Biological Behavior of Beta-Cell.

We previously isolated islet stellate cells (ISCs) from healthy Wistar rat islets. In the present study, we isolated “already primed by diabetic environment” ISCs from islets of Goto-Kakizaki rats, determined the gene profile of these cells, and assessed the effects of these ISCs on beta-cell function and survival. We detected gene expression of ISCs by digital gene expression. INS-1 cell proliferation, apoptosis, and insulin production were measured after being treated with ISCs supernatant (SN). We observed the similar expression pattern of ISCs and PSCs, but 1067 differentially expressed genes. Insulin production in INS-1 cells cultured with ISC-SN was significantly reduced. The 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine-positive INS-1 cells treated with ISC-SN were decreased. Propidium iodide- (PI-) positive INS-1 cells were 2.6-fold higher than those in control groups. Caspase-3 activity was increased. In conclusion, ISCs presented in fibrotic islet of GK rats might be special PSCs, which impaired beta-cell function and proliferation and increased beta-cell apoptosis.

Coumaglutide, a novel long-acting GLP-1 analog, inhibits β-cell apoptosis in vitro and invokes sustained glycemic control in vivo

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a potential candidate for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. However, native GLP-1 is not suitable for therapy of diabetes due to its short half-life (t1/2=2min). Our recent discovery of the novel long-acting GLP-1 analog, coumaglutide, elicits favorable hypoglycemic effects. The present study was aimed at determining the protection effect of β-cell from apoptosis and in vivo pharmacologic properties of coumaglutide in diabetic mice. To determine the protective effect of coumaglutide on INS-1 cell viability and apoptosis, cells were exposed to 1μM streptozotocin (STZ) and coumaglutide for 24h. Moreover, STZ-induced diabetic mice were treated daily with coumaglutide for 20 days and a range of pharmacologic parameters, including hemoglobin A1c (HbA1C), intraperitoneal glucose tolerance, food intake and body weight were assessed before and after the treatment. As with other glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonizts, coumaglutide was able to protect β-cell from apoptosis in vitro and induce a durable restoration of glycemic control (normalization of both HbA1C and improvement of intraperitoneal glucose tolerance) in diabetic mice. It can be concluded that coumaglutide retains native GLP-1 activities and thus may serve as a promising hypoglycemic drug candidate.

The genetic and regulatory architecture of ERBB3-type 1 diabetes susceptibility locus

The study aimed to explore the role of ERBB3 in type 1 diabetes (T1D). We examined whether genetic variation of ERBB3 (rs2292239) affects residual β-cell function in T1D cases. Furthermore, we examined the expression of ERBB3 in human islets, the effect of ERBB3 knockdown on apoptosis in insulin-producing INS-1E cells and the genetic and regulatory architecture of the ERBB3 locus to provide insights to how rs2292239 may confer disease susceptibility. rs2292239 strongly correlated with residual β-cell function and metabolic control in children with T1D. ERBB3 locus associated lncRNA (NONHSAG011351) was found to be expressed in human islets. ERBB3 was expressed and down-regulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines in human islets and INS-1E cells; knockdown of ERBB3 in INS-1E cells decreased basal and cytokine-induced apoptosis. Our data suggests an important functional role of ERBB3 and its potential regulators in the β-cells and may constitute novel targets to prevent β-cell destruction in T1D.

Novel Pentapeptide GLP-1 (32-36) Amide Inhibits β-Cell Apoptosis In Vitro and Improves Glucose Disposal in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Mice.

We proposed that a pentapeptide, LVKGR amide, GLP-1 (32-36) amide, derived from the gluco-incretin hormone, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), might possess favorable actions against diabetes. Therefore, GLP-1 (32-36) amide was synthesized and the effects of it were examined in INS-1 cell and streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice model. To determine the protective effects of GLP-1 (32-36) amide on INS-1 cell viability and apoptosis, cells were exposed to 1μm streptozotocin (STZ) and GLP-1 (32-36) amide for 24h. Results showed that GLP-1 (32-36) amide treatment decreased apoptosis rate and significantly retained cell viability compared with saline-treated controls. Then, GLP-1 (32-36) amide was administered intraperitoneally to streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice with normal mice used as control. Body weight, energy intake, plasma glucose, and histopathology of the pancreas were assessed. Results showed that GLP-1 (32-36) amide protected β-cell viability and apoptosis against STZ-induced toxicity, inhibited weight gain, and relieved symptoms of polydipsia. Moreover, GLP-1 pentapeptide-treated mice showed a slight trend toward reduced glucose excursions in intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test at the end of the experiment. GLP-1 (32-36) amide exerted favorable protective actions in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. The peptide curtailed weight gain and alleviates symptoms of polydipsia. These findings suggested the probable utility of GLP-1 (32-36) amide, a peptide mimetic derived there from GLP-1, for adjuvant treatment of diabetes.

Non-receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors enhances β-cell survival by suppressing the PKCδ signal transduction pathway in streptozotocin – induced β-cell apoptosis

GNF-2 and GNF-5 are members of a new class of non-receptor tyrosine kinases inhibitors that possess excellent selectivity towards imatinib-resistant mutations found in chronic myeloid leukemia patients. On the other hand recent reports implicate abnormal tyrosine kinase signaling in β-cell death in Type I and Type II diabetes. In this work we determined the effects of GNF-2, GNF-5 on pancreatic β-cell death caused by streptozotocin (STZ). STZ treatment causes apoptosis of INS-1 cells by activation of intracellular ROS, c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), caspase 3, and caspase 3-dependent activation of protein kinase C delta (PKCδ). GNF-2 and GNF-5 increased cell viability and attenuated STZ-induced intracellular ROS and significantly reduced the activation of JNK, caspase 3, and caspase 3-dependent activation of PKCδ. In studies with intact mice, GFN-2 and GNF-5 prevented the loss of beta cells and the increase in blood glucose produced by STZ-treated control mice. Furthermore, immunohistochemical analysis revealed that GNF-2 and GNF-5 increased insulin protein levels in STZ-treated mice when compared with control mice. These findings suggest that non-receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors provide a new approach for the treatment of new-onset Type I and Type II diabetes.

Sesamin suppresses STZ induced INS-1 cell apoptosis through inhibition of NF-κB activation and regulation of Bcl-2 family protein expression

Diverse risk factors for diabetes can induce oxidative stress, leading to pancreatic beta cell damage and insulin secretion dysfunction. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of sesamin on streptozotocin (STZ) induced apoptosis in INS-1 cells and the possible mechanisms implicated. After preincubation with indicated concentrations of sesamin (0.1, 1.0 and 10.0μmol/l) for 24h, INS-1 cells were exposed to STZ (3mmol/l) for 12h. Sesamin effectively improved STZ induced cell damage as determined by MTT [3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide] assay and insulin secretion capacity, and suppressed STZ induced cell apoptosis as evaluated by flow cytometry using annexin V and propidium iodide double staining. Western blot analysis demonstrated that sesamin markedly suppressed STZ induced nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation, with Bax protein down-regulated and Bcl-2 protein up-regulated significantly. Preincubation with sesamin resulted in an evident enhancement of total antioxidant capacity in INS-1 cells, accompanied by a significant reduction of intracellular reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde, an end product of lipid peroxidation. Taken together, these findings suggested that sesamin was capable of suppressing STZ induced INS-1 cell apoptosis, which might be ascribed, at least partly, to the inhibition of NF-κB activation and subsequent regulation of Bcl-2 family protein expression. This study would provide a potential target for treatment of diabetes with sesamin as well as other antioxidants.

Cathepsin inhibition-induced lysosomal dysfunction enhances pancreatic beta-cell apoptosis in high glucose.

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradative pathway that plays an important role in maintaining cellular homeostasis. We previously showed that the inhibition of autophagy causes pancreatic β-cell apoptosis, suggesting that autophagy is a protective mechanism for the survival of pancreatic β-cells. The current study demonstrates that treatment with inhibitors and knockdown of the lysosomal cysteine proteases such as cathepsins B and L impair autophagy, enhancing the caspase-dependent apoptosis of INS-1 cells and islets upon exposure to high concentration of glucose. Interestingly, treatment with cathepsin B and L inhibitors prevented the proteolytic processing of cathepsins B, D and L, as evidenced by gradual accumulation of the respective pro-forms. Of note, inhibition of aspartic cathepsins had no effect on autophagy and cell viability, suggesting the selective role of cathepsins B and L in the regulation of β-cell autophagy and apoptosis. Lysosomal localization of accumulated pro-cathepsins in the presence of cathepsin B and L inhibitors was verified via immunocytochemistry and lysosomal fractionation. Lysotracker staining indicated that cathepsin B and L inhibitors led to the formation of severely enlarged lysosomes in a time-dependent manner. The abnormal accumulation of pro-cathepsins following treatment with inhibitors of cathepsins B and L suppressed normal lysosomal degradation and the processing of lysosomal enzymes, leading to lysosomal dysfunction. Collectively, our findings suggest that cathepsin defects following the inhibition of cathepsin B and L result in lysosomal dysfunction and consequent cell death in pancreatic β-cells.

AICAR and Metformin Exert AMPK-dependent Effects on INS-1E Pancreatic β-cell Apoptosis via Differential Downstream Mechanisms.

The role of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in pancreatic β-cell apoptosis is still controversial, and the reasons for the discrepancies have not been clarified. In the current study, we observed the effects of two well-known AMPK activators 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleoside (AICAR) and metformin, on apoptosis in rat insulinoma INS-1E cells, and further explored their possible mechanisms. Both AICAR and metformin protected INS-1E cells from palmitate-induced apoptosis, as reflected by decreases in both cleaved caspase 3 protein expression and caspase 3/7 activity, and these protective effects were abrogated by AMPK inhibitor compound C. The protective action of AICAR was probably mediated by the suppression of triacylglycerol accumulation, increase in Akt phosphorylation and decrease in p38 MAPK phosphorylation, while metformin might exert its protective effect on INS-1E cells by decreases in both JNK and p38 MAPK phosphorylation. All these regulations were dependent on AMPK activation. However, under standard culture condition, AICAR increased JNK phosphorylation and promoted INS-1E cell apoptosis in an AMPK-dependent manner, whereas metformin showed no effect on apoptosis. Our study revealed that AMPK activators AICAR and metformin exhibited different effects on INS-1E cell apoptosis under different culture conditions, which might be largely attributed to different downstream mediators. Our results provided new and informative clues for better understanding of the role of AMPK in β-cell apoptosis.

PED/PEA-15 inhibits hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptosis in Ins-1E pancreatic beta-cells via PLD-1.

The small scaffold protein PED/PEA-15 is involved in several different physiologic and pathologic processes, such as cell proliferation and survival, diabetes and cancer. PED/PEA-15 exerts an anti-apoptotic function due to its ability to interfere with both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways in different cell types. Recent evidence shows that mice overexpressing PED/PEA-15 present larger pancreatic islets and increased beta-cells mass. In the present work we investigated PED/PEA-15 role in hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptosis in Ins-1E beta-cells. In pancreatic islets isolated from TgPED/PEA-15 mice hydrogen peroxide-induced DNA fragmentation was lower compared to WT islets. TUNEL analysis showed that PED/PEA-15 overexpression increases the viability of Ins-1E beta-cells and enhances their resistance to apoptosis induced by hydrogen peroxide exposure. The activity of caspase-3 and the cleavage of PARP-1 were markedly reduced in Ins-1E cells overexpressing PED/PEA-15 (Ins-1EPED/PEA-15). In parallel, we observed a decrease of the mRNA levels of pro-apoptotic genes Bcl-xS and Bad. In contrast, the expression of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-xL was enhanced. Accordingly, DNA fragmentation was higher in control cells compared to Ins-1EPED/PEA-15 cells. Interestingly, the preincubation with propranolol, an inhibitor of the pathway of PLD-1, a known interactor of PED/PEA-15, responsible for its deleterious effects on glucose tolerance, abolishes the antiapoptotic effects of PED/PEA-15 overexpression in Ins-1E beta-cells. The same results have been obtained by inhibiting PED/PEA-15 interaction with PLD-1 in Ins-1EPED/PEA-15. These results show that PED/PEA-15 overexpression is sufficient to block hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptosis in Ins-1E cells through a PLD-1 mediated mechanism.

Overexpression of angiotensin II type 2 receptor promotes apoptosis and impairs insulin secretion in rat insulinoma cells.

Angiotensin II (Ang II), the major effector hormone of renin-angiotensin system, acts as a promoter of insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus type 2 pathogenesis. Activation of Ang II type 2 receptor (AT2R) has been examined as a potential therapeutic strategy. However, there are conflicting findings regarding the role of AT2R. In the current study, we evaluated the effects of overexpressing AT2R by viral vector transduction on the apoptosis and function of pancreatic β-islet cells. The rat insulinoma cell line, INS-1, was transduced with a recombinant adenoviral vector expressing AT2R (Ad-G-AT2R-EGFP). AT2R overexpression resulted in significantly reduced cell viability and subsequently impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) function in INS-1 cells. Down-regulated expressions of GSIS pathway components, insulin, glucose transporter 2, and glucokinase were associated with AT2R overexpression. Further analysis determined that overexpression of AT2R induced G1-phase cell cycle arrest and Ang II-independent apoptotic cell death as indicated by increased Annexin V staining. To understand the apoptosis signaling triggered by AT2R overexpression, levels of caspase proteins were measured. Overexpression of AT2R significantly induced caspase-8, caspase-9, and caspase-3 cleavage, and decreased Bcl-2, pAkt, and pERK expression levels. AT2R-induced cell apoptosis was successfully blocked by the caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK. Our findings suggested that AT2R overexpression triggers the apoptosis of INS-1 cells and dysfunction in insulin secretion. In conclusion, more careful design and consideration are required when applying AT2R-related therapies in treating diabetes.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced apoptosis in rat INS-1 cells is dependent on activation of endoplasmic reticulum stress and suppression of antioxidant protection.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is used as plasticizer and is ubiquitously found in the environment. Exposure to DEHP has been linked to an increased incidence of type 2 diabetes. Pancreatic β-cell dysfunction is a hallmark of type 2 diabetes; however, it is unknown whether DEHP exposure contributes to this risk. Here, we aimed to investigate the cytotoxic effects of DEHP on INS-1 cells and to further explore the related underlying mechanisms. INS-1 cells were exposed to 0, 5, 25, 125 or 625 μM DEHP for 24 hrs. Cell viability, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, cellular antioxidant response, Ca2+ homoeostasis and the levels of genes and proteins involved in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress were measured. The results showed that DEHP decreased insulin secretion and content and induced apoptosis in INS-1 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, ROS generation was increased and Nrf2-dependent antioxidant defence protection was dysregulated in INS-1 cells after DEHP exposure. Most importantly, DEHP effectively depleted ER Ca2+ and triggered the ER stress response as demonstrated by the elevated transcription and translation of the ER chaperone GRP78 and GRP94, the increased phosphorylation of protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) and its downstream substrate eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), as well as the increased levels of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP). Taken together, DEHP exerted toxic effects on INS-1 cells by inducing apoptosis, which is dependent on the activation of the PERK–ATF4–CHOP ER stress signalling pathway and the suppression of Nrf2-dependent antioxidant protection.

Differential signaling by regulatory subunits of phosphoinositide-3-kinase influences cell survival in INS-1E insulinoma cells.

Class 1A phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) is essential for beta-cell growth and survival. Although PI3K has been studied extensively in diabetes the effect of alternatively spliced isoforms of the catalytic subunit p85α on beta cell proliferation and survival remains to be defined.We examined expression and signaling of alternatively spliced PI3K regulatory subunits p85α, p55α and p50α in insulinoma cells (INS-1E), an insulin-producing beta cell line. PI3K regulatory isoforms were knocked down by siRNA transfection or overexpressed by adenoviral gene delivery.Knockdown of p85α elevated PI3K activation determined by Akt phosphorylation at baseline and after stimulation with growth factors. In contrast, Akt phosphorylation was inhibited by overexpression of all isoforms of p85α. Correspondingly, p55α and p85α overexpression decreased downstream kinase GSK-3 phosphorylation as well, whereas p50α overexpression resulted in an activation of GSK-3. Moreover, overexpression of p50α and p85α lead to retinoblastoma protein hyperphosphorylation and S-phase entry. Upon challenge of INS-1E cells with a cytotoxic cytokine cocktail, levels of p85α were reduced and p50α was upregulated. Selective overexpression of p50α prevented cytokine induced apoptosis in INS-1E cells.In conclusion, signalling of p50α, p55α and p85α is similar at the level of Akt, but differentially influence downstream GSK-3 activation and cell cycle entry. PI3K isoform p50α induction by cytokines provides a link between regeneration and cell survival under cytotoxic stress in insulin-producing pancreatic beta-cells.

Matrix metalloproteinase 2 contributes to pancreatic Beta cell injury induced by oxidative stress.

ObjectiveTo investigate the role of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) in pancreatic beta cell injury induced by oxidative stress.MethodsRat pancreatic beta cell line INS-1 cells were treated with advanced glycation end-products (AGE) to induce intracellular oxidative stress. Intracellular MMP2 expression and activity were determined by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blotting, and zymography, respectively. MMP2 expression and activity were manipulated by over-expression with recombinant MMP2 plasmids or knockdown with either MMP2 specific siRNA or inhibitors, and effects on apoptosis and insulin-secretion were measured by flow cytometry and ELISA.ResultsAGE treatment induced intracellular oxidative stress in INS-1 cells, as indicated by elevated ROS levels, apoptotic cell death, and suppressed insulin secretion. This was accompanied by increased MMP2 expression and activity. However, Antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) treatment inhibited MMP2 expression and activity, and partially reversed cell apoptosis and insulin secretion dysfunction induced by AGE. Forced expression of MMP2 mimicked the effects of AGE treatment while inhibition of MMP2 either by a specific MMP2 inhibitor or MMP2 siRNA protected oxidative stress induced by AGE.ConclusionMMP2 expression and intracellular activity are increased by oxidative stress, contributing to cellular dysfunction and apoptosis in INS-1 cells after AGE challenge.

Cinnamtannin D-1 protects pancreatic β-cells from palmitic acid-induced apoptosis by attenuating oxidative stress.

In previous studies, A-type procyanidin oligomers isolated from Cinnamomum tamala were proved to possess antidiabetic effect and protect pancreatic β-cells in vivo. The aim of this study was to unveil the mechanisms of protecting pancreatic β-cells from palmitic acid-induced apoptosis by cinnamtannin D-1 (CD1), one of the main A-type procyanidin oligomers in C. tamala. CD1 was discovered to dose-dependently reduce palmitic acid- or H2O2-induced apoptosis and oxidative stress in INS-1 cells, MIN6 cells, and primary cultured murine islets. Moreover, CD1 could reverse palmitic acid-induced dysfunction of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in primary cultured islets. These results indicate that reduction of apoptosis and oxidative stress might account for the protection effect of CD1, which provided a better understanding of the mechanisms of the antidiabetic effects of procyanidin oligomers.

TRB3 is involved in free fatty acid-induced INS-1-derived cell apoptosis via the protein kinase C δ pathway.

Chronic exposure to free fatty acids (FFAs) may induce β cell apoptosis in type 2 diabetes. However, the precise mechanism by which FFAs trigger β cell apoptosis is still unclear. Tribbles homolog 3 (TRB3) is a pseudokinase inhibiting Akt, a key mediator of insulin signaling, and contributes to insulin resistance in insulin target tissues. This paper outlined the role of TRB3 in FFAs-induced INS-1 β cell apoptosis. TRB3 was promptly induced in INS-1 cells after stimulation by FFAs, and this was accompanied by enhanced INS-1 cell apoptosis. The overexpression of TRB3 led to exacerbated apoptosis triggered by FFAs in INS-1-derived cell line and the subrenal capsular transplantation animal model. In contrast, cell apoptosis induced by FFAs was attenuated when TRB3 was knocked down. Moreover, we observed that activation and nuclear accumulation of protein kinase C (PKC) δ was enhanced by upregulation of TRB3. Preventing PKCδ nuclear translocation and PKCδ selective antagonist both significantly lessened the pro-apoptotic effect. These findings suggest that TRB3 was involved in lipoapoptosis of INS-1 β cell, and thus could be an attractive pharmacological target in the prevention and treatment of T2DM.

Activation of eIF2α signaling cascade is associated with testosterone-induced cell apoptosis in INS-1 cells.

Hyperandrogenemia is associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes in women with polycystic ovary syndrome raising the possibility that androgen receptor signaling pathway plays an important role in the development and progression of β-cell dysfunction. Testosterone is the major circulating androgen in women. In this study, we investigated the effect of testosterone on INS-1 cells to find whether excess androgen could produce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress thereby contributing to β-cell dysfunction. The role of testosterone in INS-1 cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry and electron microscopy. Expression of BIP, ATF4, and CHOP were assessed by RT-PCR and Western blot. Testosterone/AR could not only initiate cell apoptosis but also induce the activation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2α) cascades in INS-1 cells. Treatment of ER stress inhibitor or flutamide (AR inhibitor) could inhibit testosterone-induced cell apoptosis and CHOP expression. These results suggest that testosterone/AR pathway caused INS-1 cell apoptosis was at least in part through eIF2α/CHOP cascades.