APA Ethics Code Research Articles

How relevant is the APA ethics code to industrial-organizational psychology? Applicability, deficiencies, and recommendations

AbstractOpinions have been divided regarding the relevance of the APA Ethics Code to non-mental health specialties and even whether the code should attempt to encompass all psychology specializations. However, these opinions have crystallized without the benefit of any appreciable empirical data, until now. This study investigates the applicability of the ethical principles and standards of the code to 398 first-person narratives of ethical incidents reported by industrial-organizational (I-O) psychologists. On average, 2.8 (of the 5) principles enumerated in the code were deemed applicable to each incident, and each principle was applicable to more than half the incidents provided. Of the code’s 89 ethical standards, 75 (84.3%) were applicable to at least one incident. Among the 10 categories of standards, resolving ethical issues and human relations were the most frequently applicable, whereas therapy standards were virtually never applicable. However, for 42.7% of the incidents, trained judges identified a substantive deficiency or ambiguity for I-O psychologists in the code. These deficiencies were subsequently grouped into seven higher order categories (assessments in organizations; research practices; data management; professional interactions; business practices; student ethics; and proactive ethical behavior). Recommendations are offered for improving those putative deficiencies, and implications are discussed for I-O psychologists, the APA’s Ethics Code Task Force (ECTF), and other nonclinical domains of psychology.

Focusing the APA Ethics Code to Include Development: Applications to Abuse.

Extant ethics codes in psychological work generally are not sufficiently developmentally oriented. Here, we examine the American Psychological Association ethics code for its developmental sensitivity, find it lacking in this regard, and make recommendations. Our approach was to place children and youth at the forefront in forming developmentally-targeted principles, meta-principles, values, and rights. To further this aim, we consulted the one ethics code in the field that is developmentally-attuned, the ethics code of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. We used a revised set of ethical principles for psychological work and developed a set of meta-principles. The five APA ethics code principles are: (a) beneficence and nonmaleficence; (b) fidelity and responsibility; (c) integrity; (d) justice; and (e) respect for people's rights and dignity. The set of ethical principles taken from Young (Revising the American Psychological Association ethics code, Springer International Publishing,2017) includes: (a) life preservation, (b) caring beneficence/nonmaleficence, (c) relational integrity, (d) respect for the dignity and rights of persons and peoples, and (e) promoting and acting from justice in society. The major meta-principles proposed here include: (a) functioning from responsibility, (b) promoting personhood, and (c) promoting participation. In addition, we added meta-principles for working from appropriate (d) theory and (e) meta-theory (Neo-Maslovian and a combined relationism-empiricism, respectively). Secondary meta-principles in the text refer to (a) systems, (b) the person as unique, (c) the vulnerabilities of people, (d) autonomy, and (e) morality.

The Ethics of Psychology Professors’ Behaviors: Perceptions From Both Sides of the Podium

Background Academic role (undergraduates, professors) and institutional context (liberal arts colleges, research universities) may affect how ethical psychology professors’ behaviors seem. Objective This study assessed whether academic role and institutional context related to ratings of professorial behaviors’ ethicality. Method A national sample ( N = 608) rated 70 professorial behaviors (e.g., unethical in virtually all circumstances to ethical in virtually all circumstances) across four domains: teaching, grading, relationships, and professional procedure. Results G-test of independence analyses yielded differences across academic role (student, professor) for 57% of teaching behaviors, 50% of grading behaviors, 63% of relationship behaviors, and 52% of professional procedure behaviors, although the difference was often a matter of degree rather than kind (ethical or unethical). Differences across institution type (liberal arts college, research university) were largest for relationship behaviors (25%) compared with teaching, grading, and policy behaviors (5%, 0%, 4%, respectively). Conclusion The data highlight the need for professors’ transparency and reinforce calls for the APA Ethics Code to consider context when defining ethical standards for psychologists’ behaviors. Teaching Implications The data set can enhance undergraduate education about the APA Ethics Code and spark discussion about sampling (e.g., limitations of this study are homogenous samples, including high-achieving undergraduates).

Empowering psychologists to evaluate revisions to the APA ethics code

ABSTRACT The authors argue that individual psychologists have an obligation to understand, review, and comment on upcoming revisions of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Psychologists may want to consider several factors as they review and prepare comments on these revisions. Among other things, commenting psychologists should consider (a) the purposes of ethics codes and how the writing of a code can meet or balance these often-conflicting purposes; (b) the overarching ethical theory or theories that should form the basis of the APA Ethics Code; and (c) the extent to which individual standards are useful and comprehensive, and avoid unnecessary harm to both the public and psychologists. The authors provide examples from the current and recent APA Ethics Codes to illustrate the types of decisions that psychologists must make when evaluating revisions to the APA Ethics Code.

Use of practice guidelines and position statements in ethical decision making.

Professional ethics guide appropriate professional conduct through their reflection of the shared values of the profession. Professional ethics codes, such as the American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (henceforth, APA Ethics Code) are intended to provide guidance across psychological activities, contexts, and specialties. As such, they must, by necessity, be rather general in nature. The APA Ethics Code provides aspirational general ethical principles and enforceable ethical standards. Despite the value of these principles and directives, psychologists commonly need more specific guidance for establishing and maintaining ethical practices in their specific professional contexts. The APA Ethics Code acknowledges in its Introduction and Applicability section the broad nature of the code and the importance of considering additional resources. The APA and other professional organizations provide practice guidelines and position statements that clarify appropriate professional behavior in specific aspects of practice. Although all U.S. psychologists are aware of the APA Ethics Code, far fewer are as familiar with the practice guidelines and position statements of professional organizations, and fewer utilize such valuable resources in their ethical decision making. Practice guidelines and position statements from professional organizations complement ethics codes and facilitate ethical decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

When clients want to pay more for psychotherapy: ethical issues and implications

One ethical issue that commonly comes up in clinical practice is the negotiation of fees with clients. Although the APA Ethics Code provides standards regarding clients who are unable to or do not pay (Standard 6.04), little guidance is given pertaining to fee limits for clients who want to pay more. This issue is explored using a real case example, including the relevant ethical codes to be considered. The necessary “gray” areas of ethical decision-making are demonstrated through my own decision process. Implications for future scenarios are discussed.

Professional Ethics in Sports Neuropsychology

There has been unprecedented interest in sport-related concussions from many and varied sources including media, sports leagues, players’ unions, lawyers, legislators, scientists, clinicians, parents, coaches, and the athletes themselves. This interest has been fueled by epidemiologic data which indicate that concussions frequently occur at all ages, at all levels of play, and across a broad range of sports. The ubiquitous nature of the injury has also been coupled with concerns about whether and what type of relationships may exist between sports-related brain injury and the development of later neurodegenerative disease processes. The development of Sports Neuropsychology has largely paralleled the interest in sports concussions, making it a young and rapidly growing area of clinical and research interest. The youth of sports neuropsychology coupled with a focus on a poorly defined injury while being subject to unprecedented media, public, legislative, and legal scrutiny presents unique and important challenges to the ethical practice of sports neuropsychology. This paper explores these challenges by reviewing the brief history of sports neuropsychology, providing a basic review of the APA Code of Ethics, and discussing key ethical constructs such as beneficence, non-maleficence, and autonomy. The role of ethnic/racial cultural considerations in sports neuropsychology is discussed as well as ethical questions related to test use and development, the various roles that sports neuropsychologists play in sports medicine, and several illustrations of the challenges faced by sports neuropsychologists related to confidentiality, competence, role definition, and role boundaries. Although this article does not provide simple answers to complex questions, it does highlight areas in need of thoughtful discourse for clinicians engaged in the dynamic and evolving nature of ethical sports neuropsychology practice.

When subjects become objects: The lies behind the Milgram legend

In her exposé of Milgram’s deceptions in obtaining “informed consent” and “dehoaxing” his subjects, Perry reveals Milgram’s deceit and misrepresentation in his dealings with colleagues as well as participants. Perry relies on evidence from Milgram’s unpublished papers and transcripts of his experimental proceedings to support her pejorative judgment on Milgram’s professional ethics. Although deception research, such as Milgram’s, clearly violates the informed consent clause of the APA Code of Ethics, it remains a modus operandi in child development and social psychology research. I argue that deception research proscribes informed consent and infringes the fiduciary obligation of psychologists to be trustworthy, and should be prohibited rather than justified by a cost-benefit analysis, as is presently the case.

Ethical Considerations in the Application of the Scientist–Practitioner Model for Psychologists Conducting Intervention Research

This paper explores the scientist–practitioner model as a paradigm for psychologists involved in treatment research, as it has been instrumental in defining the field of clinical psychology as a science-driven profession. The principles and standards of the APA Ethics Code (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct with the 2010 Amendments. Retrieved June 3, from, http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx 2010) are used as the foundation to guide scientist–practitioners as they navigate unique ethical dilemmas and issues that arise when engaging in the simultaneous pursuit of research and clinical endeavors. Specific ethical issues will be discussed, including conflicts of interest, the process of informed consent, relationship boundaries, and boundaries of competence. Recommendations are made for optimizing outcomes for clients and professionals using this model, including adherence to established informed consent procedures and treatment research protocols, as well as collaboration with those not invested in the outcome of research and clinical endeavors. Solutions are proposed as a means of maintaining the principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence, fidelity and responsibility, and integrity in the ethical practice of treatment outcome research.

Oppression, Privilege, Bias, Prejudice, and Stereotyping: Problems in the APA Code of Ethics

The American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct places ethical obligations upon psychologists based on another’s “age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language or socioeconomic status.” This article explores 18 major problems with ethical prescriptions contained in the Ethical Code involving this phrase, including problems in clarity, inconsistency, comprehensiveness, its epistemic assumptions, and its impossibility for adherence, among others.

EXECUTIVE AND LEADER COACHING: AN I/O PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE

ABSTRACT Organizations continue to re-organize, re-structure, and adapt to the paradigm shift from traditional business practices to postmodern practices in boundaryless markets and global economies. On the human side of the paradigm shift to new unchartered waters, a growing number of executives and leaders are seeking assistance for professional and career development. Organizations are also using executive and leader coaches in efforts to increase organizational performance. Yet, the field of executive and leader coaching has limited empirical studies, theories, and models. Currently, there are no legal requirements to provide coaching services or create a coaching practice outside of obtaining a business license. Therefore, the average person could create a coaching practice with a minimum investment and limited coaching skills. The absence of empirical research, mandatory requirements, and limited guiding principles could result in potentially ineffective coaching practices leading to limited outcomes or in some cases, harm to the client. The field of executive and leader coaching has a surplus of practitioners with backgrounds and experiences including retired executives and business leaders, management consultants, motivational speakers, and sports coaches. Presently, there are a few professional coaching organizations offering training and coaching certification for reasonable prices and minimum membership requirements. However, the field of executive and leader coaching also has a growing number of industrial/organizational psychologists and licensed psychologists providing coaching services influenced by the American Psychological Association code of ethics, standards, and principles. This paper provides an overview of executive and leader coaching with an industrial/organizational psychology perspective of executive and leader coaching. Keywords APA Ethics Code, Best Practices, Business Coaching, Coaching Competencies, Coaching Principles, Evidence-based Coaching, Executive and Leader Development

Ethical Considerations for Psychologists Taking a Public Stance on Controversial Issues: The Balance Between Personal and Professional Life

Previous literature has documented the general issues psychologists often face while balancing their personal and professional lives. The struggle stems from attempting to satisfy the need to maintain a life outside of work while having the professional obligation to follow the American Psychological Association’s (APA’s) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (Ethics Code) to prevent their personal lives from interfering with their professional roles and relationships. The present article analyzes the subject of psychologists taking a public position on controversial public issues. Although the APA Ethics Code does not restrict how psychologists conduct themselves during their personal time, taking a public stance on a controversial issue could potentially strain professional relationships and inadvertently reflect negatively on the profession. The present article examines ethical issues that (a) should be taken into account before psychologists take a public position on a controversial issue and (b) are in conflict with APA’s Ethics Code or current research.

Ethical Issues and Potential Solutions Surrounding the Use of Spoken Language Interpreters in Psychology

The need for psychological services to limited English proficient clients is increasing. Psychologists who provide clinical services to limited English proficient clients are frequently required to use the services of spoken language interpreters. Research has shown that the quality and consistency of interpretation services are often in question. Interpreters are generally not required to hold any certifications or to meet training requirements prior to providing interpretation services. This lack of oversight leaves the psychologist responsible for the quality of the interpretation when adhering to the American Psychological Association’s (APA) 2010 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. This article includes a discussion of the ethical and clinical issues inherent in providing psychological services through an interpreter, how those issues affect a psychologist’s adherence to the APA Ethics Code, and recommendations for meeting the ethical standards while providing sound clinical services through the use of spoken language interpreters.

Longer-term effects of inducing harm related intrusions: Implications for research on obsessional phenomena

Although numerous researchers use in vivo thought induction paradigms to study obsessional phenomena, institutional review boards (IRBs) frequently raise questions about the potential harm that these studies might cause non-treatment seeking participants and clinical psychologists have argued that these paradigms might violate the APA ethics code. Thus, the current study examined longer-term psychological effects of inducing harm-related intrusive thoughts in non-treatment seeking undergraduates. Participants were asked to think about a close relative or friend getting into a car collision and then rated their level of distress and thought action fusion-like (TAF) beliefs. One week later, participants completed an online survey that assessed their current level of distress, TAF beliefs, and their interpretation of intrusions. We found significant decreases in vivo ratings of: anxiety, likelihood TAF, moral TAF, and the urge to neutralize the effects of thinking the thought. Additionally, participants considered their intrusive thoughts to be less significant and dangerous after a week’s time. Our data suggest that thought induction paradigms are not associated with longer-term psychological risk and provide a safe and non-intrusive way of studying OCD phenomena in a laboratory setting.

Guidelines for psychological evaluations in child protection matters.

The problems of abused and neglected children are epidemic in our society (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth, and Families, 2008) and create issues that psychologists may be called upon to address. Psychologists are positioned to contribute significantly to decision making in child protection matters. Psychological data and expertise may provide sources of information and a perspective not otherwise available to courts regarding the functioning of parties, and thus may increase the fairness of decisions by the court, state agency, or other party. such matters. These guidelines are a revision of the 1999 "Guidelines for Psychological Evaluations in Child Protection Matters" (American Psychological Association [APA], 1999). These guidelines are informed by APA's "Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct" ("APA Ethics Code"; APA, 2002a, 2010).

Limits to Confidentiality in U.S. Army Treatment Settings

A number of reports detail ethical concerns of behavioral health providers in the U.S. Military regarding limited confidentiality. This article provides a review of limits to confidentiality in behavioral health settings as outlined by U.S. Army regulations and Department of Defense directives. Specific limits are discussed under seven categories, including: medical treatment and oversight, command notification, threats to safety, public health purposes, judicial or administrative proceedings, law enforcement investigation, and specialized personnel programs. Specific attention is given to war crimes reporting, special duty, and command involvement. Lessons learned for best practice across service branches are provided as a collaborative model for resolving perceived conflict between the APA Ethics Code and military regulations.

Treatment of Sexual Minority Youth: Ethical Considerations for Professionals in Psychology

Treatment of sexual minority youth presents psychologists with a number of challenging ethical considerations. The APA Ethics Code is a valuable resource for addressing these issues, but psychologists require additional guidance in order to provide ethical treatment. This article provides relevant background, an overview of the ethical considerations of treating sexual minority youth, and recommendations to improve upon the current state of awareness and available resources. Psychologists must continually strive to improve our understanding of ethical decisions around treatment, training, and research that will serve to address this vulnerable population's unmet mental health needs.

What Are the Confidentiality Rights of Collaterals in Family Therapy?

The privacy rights of collateral family members constitute one of the most complex ethical issues in the field of family therapy. The author opens with four case studies which illustrate some of the dilemmas. The opening section reviews the APA Ethics Code on this topic, followed by an in depth analysis of confidentiality issues in marital therapy and the special ethical dilemmas of high conflict, child custody cases. The author reviews the scant case law on this topic and closes with a set of best practices guidelines for the clinician.

Ethical Principles and Standards That Inform Educational Gatekeeping Practices in Psychology

Educational gatekeeping functions in psychology serve to assess, remediate, and/or dismiss students and trainees with problematic professional competencies (STPPC). Recently, professional psychology graduate programs have increasingly focused on problems with professional competency, and they have begun to implement formal procedures to intervene with STPPC (Rubin et al., 2007). However, there has been considerably less literature addressing the ethics and ethical considerations of instituting these gatekeeping functions, especially in different stages of education and training in psychology. The American Psychological Association (APA; 2002) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (Ethics Code) offers faculty and supervisors ethical principles and obligatory standards that provide guidance about how to implement highly ethical gatekeeping practices. The purpose of this article is to highlight the major ethical issues and dilemmas that faculty and supervisors may face when intervening with STPPC and provide recommendations for ethical gatekeeping practices that are inspired by the APA Ethics Code.

Clinical writing about clients: Is informed consent sufficient?

The use of client information in clinical writings or presentations may be very helpful in advancing the knowledge base of the profession. Yet, the very act of asking a client for permission to use their treatment information in this way may be detrimental to the therapeutic alliance and treatment process. As such, great care must be taken in how such issues are considered and acted upon. Sieck's article (2011, Obtaining clinical writing informed consent versus using client disguise and recommendations for practice. Psychotherapy, 49, pp. 3-11.) on the use of informed consent for obtaining permission to use a client's treatment information for professional writing and presentations is examined and discussed. The nature and role of the informed consent process is accentuated; psychotherapist needs and goals and client vulnerabilities are each addressed in the context of the relevant sections of the APA Ethics Code and each psychotherapist's obligation to act only in ways consistent with each client's best interests. Recommendations for a thoughtful consideration of these issues are presented, consistent with Sieck's proposed decision-making process for use in these situations.