Ancient Philosophy Research Articles

Integrating Indian Knowledge System in Education: A Study of Government Reforms

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS), initiated in the ancient philosophy, science and culture of the country, is also recognized in today’s discourse. With the launch of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, the Indian government is working to integrate IKS in mainstream education to promote development opportunities for students. This article explores the impact of government education reform on student development, focusing on the integration of IKS in the curriculum and co-curricular activities. Analyzing policy documents, school survey reports and student feedback, the study assesses the potential of IKS to support intellectual, emotional and cultural development. The article also discusses the challenges faced in implementing effective reforms, such as the need for new teaching methods, teacher training and infrastructural support. This study evaluates the role of IKS in the development of thinking, creativity and meaningful learning, highlighting its importance in making future students have their roots as international citizens. Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) is dedicated to encouraging and supporting research to solve the problems of today’s society. Based on the rich tradition of Vedic literature including Vedas and Upanishads, IKS is ready to be integrated into educational platforms. Teacher training and mentoring development model is being taken up to improve the quality of classroom teaching in IKS classrooms. Special training centers will be set up for teachers and specific topics in Indian knowledge will be focused on.

Being as the Unity of Substance and Accident in the Metaphysics of the Peripatetic

Representatives of “Falsafa” rationalistically interpreted the ontological and logical-epistemological nature of the categories. They tried to highlight the most general concepts about the world and ways of knowing it. Objective reality appears to Peripatetic thinkers, primarily as the unity of substance and accident. Therefore, the categorical table of the Eastern Peripatetics was built according to a certain system and, to a certain extent, corresponds to the principle of substantial connection of categories. The basis of the substrate of categorical statements is substance. Separate categories such as quality, quantity, relation, place, time, action, possession and others concretize from various sides and reveal its content and essence. Representatives of medieval Arabian philosophy on the basis of the teachings of ancient philosophers proposed number of philosophical concepts in their treatises. The separate categories put forward by Peripatetics as time, space, place, quality, quantity are revealed in their essential characteristics.

Main Paradigms of the Concept of Evil in Western Anthropological and Psychological Studies

Purpose. The authors aim to investigate the evolution of the paradigm shift of the concept of evil in Western philosophical and psychological thought. Theoretical basis is determined by the latest methodological approaches in studying the relationship between philosophical, psychological, and theological approaches to understanding the essence of evil and its manifestations. Originality. For the first time in Ukrainian philosophical literature, a systematization of the evolution of the concept of evil in the philosophical and psychological sciences has been carried out. Conclusions. Analyzing the main mythological, theological, philosophical, and psychological concepts of evil provides an opportunity to systematize them through the main five paradigms. The primordial paradigm can be considered dualistic, which retains its influence until our time. Evil is understood in it as the personification of natural disasters, diseases, human crimes, and a force opposing Good. Ancient philosophy and Christianity try to deprive evil of its ontological status: evil does not exist as such but is only a lack of Good. Based on this understanding, a privative paradigm was formed, which dominated the European philosophical and theological consciousness for more than a millennium. It became the basis for philosophical theodicy: the justification of the all-good God in the face of clearly existing evil. But at the end of the 18th century, it gave way to the dialectical-romantic paradigm, the most vivid representatives of which are Schelling, Hegel, and Nietzsche. The concept of evil is reinterpreted and considered as a necessary component of the world, which, along with good, belongs to a higher reality. The concept of evil receives a new understanding in the psychoanalysis of Freud, Jung, and Fromm: its source is determined by the human subconscious, and its external manifestation is aggression. A similar understanding of evil is inherent in many other psychological schools, some of which also conducted psychological experiments on the originally evil nature of man. However, such "experiments" are characteristic of the social practices of totalitarian regimes, based on which the concept of the "banality" of evil arises. The appearance of the latest postmodern paradigm of understanding evil is connected with the attempt of some thinkers to reject all previous concepts of evil and a kind of return to the oldest dualistic paradigm. It would seem that the fall of most totalitarian regimes and the expectation of the "end of history" did not give grounds for popularizing this paradigm. Still, the events of the early 20s of our century indicate the need for its actualization.

Research into Equivalence in Multilingual Parallel Corpora

Shota Rustaveli’s epic “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin” is an exceptional monument of aphoristic style. The complexity of Shota Rustaveli’s worldview, which is mirrored in his epic, is a result of the mixing of mediaeval and Renaissance thinking. It combines Christian (and, in general, religious) thoughts with antique philosophy (Plato, Dionysus the Areopagite, Aristotle) and mythical and transcendental visions with analytical thinking. Rustaveli’s worldview, as well as several religious-philosophical doctrines – Christianity, Areopagitica, Neoplatonism, and Aristotelianism – are all reflected in the aphorisms used in the epic, which plays a special role not only in the cultural memory of the Georgians but also in the history of world literature. The epic has been translated into 58 languages and is included in the registry of the world cultural heritage of UNESCO. The variety of languages into which the epic has been translated provides a unique opportunity for the creation of the multilingual parallel corpus ‘Rustaveli goes digital’, which is an outstanding resource for translation studies to examine the quality of translations, analyse translation methods, pinpoint translators’ strategies, and contrast them. But how can we judge the quality of translations, especially in the case of aphorisms? Determining the degree of equivalence between the source and target texts is not sufficient for a qualitative evaluation of the translations of the epic; e.g., the translation quality of the aphoristic style in the translations is one of the challenges that we believe needs to be addressed. In the present paper, we discuss our research model on how to evaluate the translation quality of aphorisms.

Гносеологическая проблема созерцания и симулирования в философии

There are two ways to gain new knowledge: 1) when incomplete and inaccurate knowledge becomes more complete and accurate as a result of formal logical deduction, and 2) when “contemplation” is established as a direct connection of the subject with the being of the object of knowledge, which implies the formulation and solution of the main question of philosophy, including ontological and epistemological aspects. Turning to the concept of contemplation, K. Marx pointed out the main drawback of previous materialism, which ignored human activity with the subject. Idealism developed it, but misinterpreted its correlation with the subject of knowledge. Further, the objective-idealistic version of contemplation, dating back to the ancient philosophy of Plato, and the subjective-idealistic version, dating back to the philosophy of I. Kant, are analyzed. The differences and similarities in their content are revealed. Finally, it is shown that contemplation, as an epistemological problem, has a rational content in materialistic philosophy, because here we are talking about establishing a direct connection between the subject and objective reality, the various phenomena of which act as a variety of cognizable objects, providing absolutely new knowledge (absolute truth) in contrast to knowledge relatively new (relative truth) in the course of formal logical deduction. Such contemplation is obtained by the subject of cognition in the process of his contemplative activity. It is opposed by simulation, and its characteristic is given, which goes back to the Platonic concept of “copy of a copy”, which is being mastered in modern philosophy. The difference between the concepts of Plato and Plotinus, who switched to the position of simulation, is shown. The dialectical method of the unity of historical and logical, supplemented by the comparative method, was used as a research methodology, which made it possible to identify the fundamental opposite of contemplation and simulation.

EXPERIENCE OF BEING: ORIGIN, PARADIGMATIC POTENTIAL, WAYS AND MEANS OF CULTURAL RECEPTION

The article is devoted to the experience of being; it suggests that the experience of being is the basis of human subjectivity and is responsible for ensuring the connection between man and the universe. Intuitions born in the process of being experience are used by a person to solve existential problems. Being experience in its immediacy was revealed to man in the epoch of transition from primitive communal relations to class society. The discursive comprehension of the being experience undertaken by ancient philosophy led to the development of the concept of being. Similarities in the descriptions of basis experience found in the texts of philosophers and religious mystics across diverse traditions, suggests the presence of a fundamental, invariant experience of being at the core of human spirituality. While interpreted differently in philosophical and religious contexts, this experience serves as the foundation for all conceptions of being, At the intersection of the intuitive experience of being and its discursive comprehension, the cultural category of being is formed. The second part of the article is devoted to the analysis of the main mechanisms of being experience, which are responsible for the unfolding of the space of human activity and the experience of unity between man and the world. Particular attention is paid to the minimal phenomenal experience, and the possibility of identity between the minimal phenomenal experience and the being experience is considered. This idea is supported by Thomas Metzinger's research on minimal phenomenal experience (MPE). Ultimately, it is proved that the experience of being is the experience of direct unity between the individual and being. This feature allows us to realise our identity with the world and participate in the self-actualisation of being.

The figures, profiles, border figures (figures-limites), and ‘pure schema’ of Foucault’s later lectures on cosmopolitanism

This article offers an affirmative reading of the Socratic and Cynical ‘figures’ in Foucault’s lecture series at the Collège de France, his last (if not final) word on the philosophical care of the self and cosmopolitanism. Foucault interprets ancient philosophy in a series of figures, all of whom are characterized by an affirmative care of self rather than by the hierarchical pastoral power relations he ascribes to Christian confessional politics. In an overlooked complication, Foucault introduces border figures ( figures-limites) that mark the limits of a classical figure (e.g. Diogenes the Cynic) and anticipates or recalls very different historical and philosophical configurations of truth, power, and self. This article describes Socrates and Cynics as figures and as border figures introducing new relations of subject, truth, and power. The article distinguishes the practices of the life-affirming figure of Socrates from ‘Platonism’ and uses the concept of the border figure to explore the practical range of commitments of Cynic cosmopolitans. The article then addresses recent and present-day radical cosmopolitans in terms of the figure of the cosmopolitan and the border figure of the defiant performance artist and militant political revolutionary. Not easily amenable to simple labels, Foucault’s cosmopolitanism could be described as zetetic, or searching and testing. As militant and radical, its radical commitment is to experimenting with different configurations of subject, truth, and power.

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF PROPER NAMES OF UKRAINIAN EARLY MODERN PERIOD

specific character of proper names discursive implementa- of proper names discursive implementa- of proper names discursive implementa- proper names discursive implementa- discursive implementa- tion of Ukrainian proper names in the early modern period of the 17th century. The research task is to char- acterize proper names as a resource of persuasiveness in the preaching discursive practice of the 17th cen- tury; to determine the discursive polyplanarity of proper names in early modern Ukrainian sermons; to an- alyze proper names in terms of text generation and cognitive processes of the speaker (knowledge, mem- ory reproduction, analogy); to reveal the principles of combining proper names and creating images (met- aphors, similes) in Ukrainian early modern practice; to establish the influence of ideology on the discourse and creation of the imagery of agionyms for the designation of the names of the Rus saints. Research methods: discourse analysis (to characterize the process of text generation in the preach- ing discursive practice of the 17th century, which is conditioned by historical sociocultural processes), ono- mastic discourse analysis (based on the analysis of proper names in discourse) taking into account axiolog- ical and ideological representations of discourses, contextual and interpretive analysis (two stages, contex- tualization and interpretation, are covered), linguistic and cultural interpretation (to characterize baroque conceptism and determine secondary meanings in the preaching discursive practice). Proper names are an active resource of text creation in the early modern sermon, which is analyzed in accordance with the traditional episteme and sociocultural conditions of the Ukrainian early modern of the second half of the 17th century, the requirements of institutional discourse, the type of discursive practice, and the author’s instructions. Baroque conceptism with the creation of new meanings contributed to the memorization and perception of the presentation, activation of attention, emotions of recipients, influence on the consciousness of Ruthenianas. The preaching practice of this period acquires certain signs of epistemic discursive transformations, which explain beliefs and partly knowledge that acquire symbolic meaning in the preaching activity to the discourse of faith. The encyclopedic nature of the author, the creation of new images, and persuasiveness accumulate in the preaching of multi-layered proper names that synthesize different cultural layers in the preacher’s updated interpretation. The onomastic discourse analysis not only studies the imagery of historical discourses, but also extrapolates the study of proper names to the peculiarities of ancient text generation and the cognitive processes of the speaker. Processing of information by the author is considered in the aspects of processing foreign language sources (analysis of methods of adaptation of borrowed proper names), reproduction of information from memory (inaccurate spelling of proper names), creation of analogies, images (metaphors, similes). The creation of images by analogy determines baroque syncretism, which combines theonyms and mythonyms, biblical anthroponyms and mythonyms, Christian theonyms and pagan theonyms. New fields of knowledge and secondary meanings of astronomical names (names of constellations, stars) become one of the resources of the baroque imagery of the sermon, its axiological representation. Sociocultural and ideological conditions actualize sermons in honor of the Rus saints in the Ukrainian preaching discourse. The comparison of these agionyms with biblical anthroponyms (parallels from the Old Testament), names of ancient philosophers, poets (Sophocles), names of world history (Alexander the Great) is characterized.

Integrated dialectic in Plato’s Parmenides:

Plato’s Parmenides was considered as the main ontological work of the ancient philosophy and used for this reason as the summit of the philosophical curriculum of the New Platonic Academy established by the Neoplatonists after Iamblichus. Proclus’ Commentary, based on Syrianus, serves as a key reference text for understanding of the sophisticated concepts of the dialogue. After the not fully survived commentaries of Proclus and Damascius, a great enterprise was undertaken by Georgios Pachymeres in Late Byzantium for a complete commentary and later in Renaissance by Marsilio Ficino, the founder of the revived Platonic Academy in Florence. In this article the focus is given in those passages of Parmenides where Ficino has given comments differentiated from the respective comments of Proclus. Lastly, some remarks are presented concerning the structure of dialectical schema of Parmenides, which can be considered as a great standard for an in-depth analysis of the various levels of being in ontological theories.

(Re)writing commentaries: Alexander on Metaphysics V 2 and Simplicius on Physics II 3

Abstract This article presents and analyses new evidence for how Simplicius made use of Alexander of Aphrodisias for his commentary on Aristotle’s Physics. Alexander’s commentary on the Physics is lost to us (except for scholia on Physics IV–VIII), but, as argued in section II of this article, we have a slightly abridged version of Alexander’s commentary on Physics II 3 in the form of his commentary on Metaphysics V 2 (Aristotle’s Physics II 3 and Metaph. V 2 are more or less identical). This allows a comparison of Alexander’s and Simplicius’ commentaries on the same Aristotelian text. In section III, it is shown that Simplicius relies much more extensively on Alexander than his explicit references indicate. In section IV, it is shown that (a) when Simplicius refers to Alexander disapprovingly, he reports reliably what Alexander said, but that (b) when Simplicius refers to Alexander approvingly and as an authority in support of his own view, he provides a tendentious interpretation of Alexander’s argument. My results help to evaluate Simplicius’ reliability as a witness to the many works of ancient philosophy for which he is our only source.

Multidisciplinary Research Addressing Emerging Global Challenges of Ensuing Decade: A Review

Multidisciplinary research is the hallmark in 21st century and a way forward towards holistic sustainability. Ancient philosophers viz; Aristotle, Socrates, Confucius, Al-Farabi, Sigmund Freud, Jabar-bin-Hayan, Benjamin Bloom, Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche laid foundations of philosophies based on their intellectual multidisciplinary knowledge approach. The promising impact of multi-scientific disciplines demonstrate the importance of diverse academic and research domains. In fact, every discipline is interrelated and interdependent to each other with a minute hairline difference. MDR unites scientists globally from distinct academic backgrounds to address pressing challenges of next decade, but no doubt cooperation is crucial in scientific study as it stimulates innovation, creativity, and systematic conception. Present review emphasizes importance of transdisciplinary research in diverse meta-problems, tackling future challenges and multi-faceted complexities. Emerging technology has made it possible for scientists and scholars from various purviews around the world to collaborate on projects and research without being at the same location. The most significant recommendation of this article highlights the future scope of transdisciplinary approach by inclusion of collaborative research meeting sustainable development goals (SDG’s) through multi research, thereby aligning researchers and scientists towards internationalization.

Понятие человеческой природы как богословская, историческая и философская проблема

The article problematizes the concept of human nature in three related fields of knowledge: theology, history, and philosophy. The main problem with "human nature" as a theological concept is that it was based on ancient anthropology, primarily Aristotle. However, modern intellectual culture is separated from antiquity by the "anthropological revolution" that occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century thanks to Freud, Heidegger, Lorenz, and others. As a result, a different idea of human nature has emerged, in which, for example, sexuality, mortality, and aggressiveness are understood not as defects of human nature, but as constitutive factors of human personality. From the perspective of modern anthropology, the concept of human nature as a tool of dogmatic theology needs to be rethought. However, this conclusion itself requires historical verification, and meaningful transformations of the concept of human nature require scrupulous historical research. In turn, the historical study of semantic transformations of the concept of human nature is complicated by the uncertainty of its boundaries and content. There are at least five ways of understanding human nature, dating back to ancient philosophy: nature as the antonym of art (technē), nature as a "scheme" of a thing, setting the direction of its transformations, nature as the goal of movement, nature as a measure of perfection, norm, and nature as an ensemble of typologizing signs. In contemporary debates, the validity of the concept of human nature is called into question. Constructivist criticism of essentialism is based on anthropological data, which testify to the diversity of ideas about man and, accordingly, reinforce the thesis that "human nature" is a cultural construct that does not have an ontological status. However, over the past few decades, evolutionary biologists have sought to give stable and "objective" content to the concept of human nature. However, the possibility of using the data of modern biology, which reveals the evolutionarily established species characteristics of a person (including those that are still considered cultural), to identify a cultural norm remains in question.

The cardinal philosophical virtutes and contemporaryness

This article analyzes the cardinal philosophical virtues that have been elucidated by the ancient philosophers Plato and Aristotle, being further developed by medieval, modern and contemporary philosophers. The author refers to the characteristic of these virtues – prudence, courage, temperance and spirit of justice, by analyzing the views on them from antiquity to the present day. Particular attention is paid to courage as an ethical virtue that constitutes a primary form of resistance and a necessary condition for learning other virtues because it constitutes the power to resist evil within us and around us. At the same time, a special place is assigned to the spirit of justice, which records the fact that no one is above the law and other people. In conclusion, it is noted that man must, above all, in contemporary conditions, when the responsibility for the future of the existence of human civilization is immense, follow the cardinal philosophical virtues by practicing and applying them permanently.

Ancient Indian epistemology and modern cognitive science: Exploring vedic insights in contemporary thought processes

Background: This article explores the connections between the concept of anviksiki in Hindu philosophy and theories in cognitive science, and how these principles can be applied in modern education. Anviksiki, which focuses on critical thinking and deep reflection, is considered to have strong relevance to cognitive science concepts such as information processing, perception, and decision-making. Methods: The method used in this research is literature study and comparative analysis, by reviewing various literatures that discuss Hindu philosophy and cognitive science in depth. The analysis shows that anviksiki can provide an additional perspective in understanding how humans think and process information, especially in the context of moral and ethical reflection. Finding: In education, the principle of anviksiki that emphasises self-reflection and critical thinking can enrich students' learning process. This concept supports active learning methods that allow students to construct their own understanding, in a way that is in line with Piaget's theory of constructivism. In addition, cognitive science provides practical insights into information processing and memory, which can be used to design more effective teaching strategies. Conclusion: The conclusion of this study confirms that anviksiki can be integrated with cognitive science to create a holistic approach to education, which enriches intellectual, ethical and reflective aspects. By combining Hindu wisdom and cognitive science insights, education can support the development of balanced individuals, who are able to think critically and understand the moral consequences of their decisions. This research reveals that Anviksiki, as a philosophy of critical thinking in the Hindu tradition, has strong relevance to concepts in modern cognitive science, particularly in analytic approaches, logic, and deductive methods. Thus, the heritage of Hindu thought not only demonstrates traditional wisdom but also presents a philosophical foundation that supports contemporary cognitive exploration. Novelty/Originality of this article: This research offers a new perspective by bridging the ancient philosophy of Anviksiki with modern cognitive science, demonstrating the continuity of concepts in the critical thinking process involving logical analysis and deductive methods. It provides new insights in understanding the contribution of the Hindu tradition of thought to the development of cognitive theory today.

The Evolution of the Theory of Antitrust Regulation: From Ancient Philosophy to Economic Concepts of Competition and Monopoly

Effectiveness of antitrust policy is actively discussed within the framework of both economic theory and practice of government regulation. Although the antimonopoly legislation in the modern sense has formed relatively recently, the theory of antimonopoly regulation was established over centuries under the influence of the greatest economists of the past and historical processes. The most important stages in the development of this theory are examined. The contribution of ancient philosophy and politics in the formation of basic ideas on competition and monopoly is analyzed. The revolution produced by classical political economy is studied. Specific (but historically important) Marxist and socialist positions on competition, free trade and monopolization are demonstrated. It is shown that these complicated historical discussions are important for solving current problems in the field of competition.

From ancient philosophy to modern governance: Confucian culture shaping low-carbon corporate transformation in China’s listed companies

Considering the goal of green development, this study examines the role of Confucian culture in low-carbon corporate transformation. This study shows that Confucian culture can effectively promote the low-carbon transformation of companies. The greater the influence of Confucianism on a company, the higher its level of low-carbon transformation is. Confucian culture takes effect in three ways: by improving corporate environmental awareness, by promoting social responsibility, and by strengthening corporate governance. Heterogeneity research shows that state-owned and low-capital-intensity companies, low-competition and high-attention industries, non-low-carbon pilot programs, and low-marketization areas all increase the extent of influence. The findings shed light on the influence of Confucians on low-carbon transformation at the firm level and enrich the ideas surrounding Confucian culture and corporate development.

Indian philosophy as a precursor of the string theory of consciousness. Part 2

Introduction. The article examines the formation of the Ancient Indian philosophy and its connection to consciousness. The Indian philosophy has come a long way from its onset, in parallel with the Chinese and Ancient Greek philosophy. At the same time, the ideas of some of its branches and schools differ in a number of features. Purpose setting. By the example of the Sankhya school of philosophy, we have explored the evolution of the views of Ancient Indian philosophers on the evolution of the Universe, nature and man. We have put particular emphasis on the concept of consciousness.Methodology and methods of the study. In Sankhya system, the fundamental Prakriti and Purusha principles are identified. Other elements are supplementary. Ancient philosophers laid special emphasis on the three vibrating gunas. These are sattva, rajas, and tamas. We have revealed the functional connections between the gunas. The way they interact, in balance or dominance, determines the entire variety of material and spiritual processes. The evolution of the Universe in the Sankhya interpretation is close to the scientific theory of the Big Bang. The development of nature can be traced through the complication of atoms starting from the influence of a stimulus on unconscious chaos. The result of human evolution is the emergence of consciousness derivatives: intellect, mind and I (Ego). This allows better understanding of the behavioral characteristics of an existing personality. Yoga complements Sankhya system and makes it possible to transform consciousness in a number of states.Results. The analysis was carried out using scientific articles and monographs relatively unknown in the Russian press. Cognitive development occurs in a spiral. The scientific theory of strings appeared two and a half millennia after the emergence of the gunas concept. We have made a number of analogies between Ancient Indian gunas and contemporary string theory. And have substantiated the theory of consciousness not with quantum theory, but with a deeper string theory. The concept of consciousness is supported in line with the scientific paradigm of T. Kuhn. The leading ideas are the ideas about information of D. Chalmers and the physicist J. Wheeler.Conclusion. Thus, the phenomenon of consciousness has a silicon and biological basis. We insist on using the semantic concept of artificial consciousness instead of artificial intelligence. Therefore, between human consciousness and artificial consciousness there may be dangerous risks of dominance of the latter.

Humanistic foundations of the legal system: dialectics of theory and practice in the conditions of modern challenges

The article is devoted to the study of the principle of humanism as the fundamental basis of the modern legal state. The author examines the historical development of the concept of humanism from the ideas of ancient philosophers to modern concepts of human rights, emphasizing its key role in the formation of the legal system and state policy. The work analyzes the concept of «principle» and its meaning in the legal context. The author emphasizes the systematic nature of the principles of law, their interrelation and hierarchy, which is critically important for understanding their role in the formation and functioning of the legal system. Special attention is paid to the principle of humanism as a cross-cutting element of the legal system. Its key aspects are considered: recognition of the inherent value of each person, respect for human dignity, provision of conditions for the realization of rights and freedoms, striving for the common good. The author emphasizes that humanism in law is not only an ethical ideal, but also a practical guideline for law-making and law enforcement. The article also examines certain aspects of the dialectical opposition between humanism and anti­humanism, which allows for a deeper understanding of the dynamic nature of humanistic principles and their role in the development of the rule of law. The author emphasizes the need for constant critical review of existing norms and institutions for their compliance with humanistic ideals. An important aspect of the research is consideration of the relationship between the level of moral maturity of society and the implementation of the principle of humanism. The author claims that in a morally developed society, respect for the rights and freedoms of the individual becomes an organic component of everyday life, which creates a harmonious coexistence of ethical principles and legal norms. In the conclusions, the author emphasizes the need not only for formal enshrining of humanistic principles in legislation, but also for their practical implementation in all spheres of social life. This requires constant improvement of the legal system and state administration in order to maximally satisfy the needs and interests of citizens, which is a key feature of a truly legal and democratic state.

THE PROBLEM OF VIOLENCE IN THE ANCIENT CULTURAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITION

The article attempts to trace the key points of view on the problem of violence in the philosophical views of the most famous thinkers of European antiquity. It is shown that in the system of social relations, violence in its pure form plays the role of the oldest and most primitive way of resolving the objectively existing conflict of interests of the participants of the social process. The nature of the conflict is rooted in the actual inequality of one subject to another, which finds its fullest expression in the inequality of the needs of individuals. It is substantiated that violence becomes a legal regulator of public interests when the extent of its use in society is recognized by the majority. It is shown that in the context of the development of ancient philosophy, the problem of violence was considered mainly in connection with the socio-political teachings of the classics of Greek philosophy, as well as within the framework of moral discourse. The phenomenon of violence was not tolerated by representatives of ancient philosophy as a separate problem worthy of consideration.

The Purification of Struggle in Foucault’s Analysis of Ancient Philosophy

In The Hermeneutics of the Subject, Michel Foucault criticizes modern historiography for presupposing a factitious theory of the subject. Foucault rejects this presupposition and pursues an alternative style of historiography, organized by the analysis of epimeleia heautou (“care of the self”). Aiming his criticism solely at its theory of the purified subject, Foucault overlooks the deeper structural incoherence of modern historiography. This oversight leads Foucault to an uncritical embrace of a style of historiography that enacts its own form of purification. In the reading developed here, Foucault systematically purges the history of class struggle from the analysis of self-care. This essay introduces the outlines of a Marxian approach to ancient practices of care of the self that is nonreductive and nondeterminist in and through a reading of Foucault. In this approach, the organization of classes and the practices of care of the self that materialize within a society are to be understood historically as constantly shaping and influencing one another.